Ashoka, the third king of the Mauryan dynasty and one of the greatest kings of the ancient world, succeeded to the throne around 269 B.C. Ashoka usurped the throne after emerging victorious in succession wars. The region under the reign of Ashoka stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east.

Ashoka’s period is marked by his policy of Dhamma, a topic of discussion even today, and his efforts to spread Buddhism, which he arguably adopted after the Kalinga War. He assumed the titles of Priyadasi (He who regards amiably) and Devanampiya (Beloved of the Gods), which can be observed in almost all the Rocks and Pillar edicts.

The Kalinga War

The war was fought in 261 B.C. between the Mauryan Empire and the Kalinga state, an independent kingdom encompassing present-day Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh. The only major battle that Ashoka fought after acceding to the throne was fought presumably on the Dhauli hills (on the bank of Daya River), which is of great significance.

• In the Rock Edict XIII, Ashoka himself describes, “A hundred and fifty thousand were killed, and many times that number perished”.
• The War brought great suffering to the Brahmana priests and Buddhist monks.
• Ashoka abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of a policy of cultural conquest. That is, Bherighosha (war drum) was replaced with Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma).
• Under the influence of the Buddhist monk Upagupta, he embraced Buddhism.
• The teachings and Policy of Dhamma were propagated.
• Ambassadors of peace were sent to the Greek kingdoms in West Asia and Greece.

Ashoka’s Policy of Dhamma

Dhamma was not any particular religious faith nor a royal policy that was developed at random. 

It was an earnest attempt of Ashoka to solve the problems of society and to create harmony and tolerance amongst the people using minimal force. He devised this policy on his own, though the catalysing factor was the remorse that he felt due to the outcomes of the bloody Kalinga War.

• Need:
• Continuing the tradition of his preceders, Chandragupta (follower of Jainism) and Bindusara (favoured Ajivikas), Ashoka too adopted an eclectic outlook. He adopted Buddhism.
• The society in his time encompassed various beliefs, cultures, and social and political practices. Ashoka, rather than using force, used the policy of Dhamma to set social norms that would be acceptable to all.
• With the rise of heterodox sects like Ajivikas, Buddhism, and Jainism and the potential conflicts with the orthodox Brahmanism, so a climate of mutual trust and harmony was needed.
• Content:
• It focused on the general behaviour of people.
• Dhamma stressed tolerance of people themselves and of their beliefs and ideas. 
• It emphasised the moral behaviour towards elders, slaves and servants, Brahmanas and sramanas, animals, etc.
• The policy of Dhamma laid stress on non-violence and welfare measures. 
• Rock Edict 13, which mentions the Kalinga War, is a testament against war.
• Ashoka’s appointment of the Dhamma mahamattas, rather than using Samgha, proves that his Dhamma did not discriminate against any religious doctrine.
• He wanted to promote respect for all religious sects and tolerance in society.
• Propagation:
• To propagate the policy of dhamma, Ashoka used the medium of edicts.
• These edicts were used to communicate between the King (Ashoka) and his subjects.
• Few inscriptions were addressed to the Buddhist Samgha.
• In these, there is a declaration of Ashoka’s own relationship with the Buddhist order.
• In one kind of inscription, he mentions by their title some of the scriptures with which all Buddhists should be familiar.
• Other Inscriptions, known as the Major and Minor Rock and Pillar Edicts, talk about dhamma and were chosen carefully to address a large number of people.

14 Major Rock Edicts

These are the separate 14 major rock edicts, spanning across almost India. Except for the Kandahar Greek Edict, which is on a stone plaque, all other major rock edicts were written on large rocks.

• Location: These edicts were inscribed on the frontiers of Ashoka’s territory and not in the heartland (capital) of the Mauryan Empire.
• Languages and script: Three languages (Prakrit, Aramaic and Greek) and two scripts (Brahmi and Kharosthi).

Minor Rock Edicts

• They are the first inscriptions predating the Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka. 
• Kandahar Bilingual rock edict, which is in Greek and Aramaic, is the first known Ashoka inscription.
• The edicts appear in Bahapur, Gujjara, Udegolam, Maski, Nittur, Siddapur, Brahmagiri, Jatinga Rameshwara, Rajula Mandagiri, Yerragudi, Sasaram, Bairat, Ahraura etc.
• Only four of these places use the name “Ashoka” - Maski, Brahmagiri, Nettur and Gujjara.

Major Pillar Edicts

The seven Major Pillar Edicts are the most detailed and technically sound of all the inscriptions.

• Location: Except for the two fragments of the inscription found in Afghanistan, all the Major Pillars edicts are located in the Gangetic plains.
• Timeline: These were inscribed towards the end of Ashoka''s reign.
• Language and script: Like Minor Pillars, only Prakrit with Brahmi script was used to inscribe on the pillars, except for a few derived inscriptions of Afghanistan in Aramaic.

Minor Pillar Edicts

• Location: All the Minor Pillars Edicts are located in Gangetic plains and close to the capital of the Mauryan empire.
• These are exclusively inscribed on several of the pillars of Ashoka at Sarnath, Sanchi, Kausambi, Rummindei and Nigali Sagar.
• Timeline: Chronologically, they were written after the Minor Rock Edicts and in parallel with the Major Rock Edicts.
• Language and script: All minor pillar edicts are in the Prakrit language in Brahmi script.

Features of Inscriptions

• Script variation: The script of the inscriptions on these edicts varied from region to region.
• Magadhi Prakrit language using Brahmi script in central and eastern India.
• Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic languages in Kharosthi script in north-western India.
• Authorship:
• Except on the Minor Rock edicts, all other inscriptions do not mention the name “Ashoka”; rather they mention terms like "Devanampriya” and “Priyadasi”.
• It is only after the reconstruction based on the “Dipavamsa” it has been associated the name "Ashoka" with "Priyadasi".
• Mention of Family: Among his queens, only Kuruwaki and his children, only Teevar, are mentioned in the inscriptions.
• Kanganahalli Inscriptions: Located near Sannati, Karnataka, it mentions Ashoka as “Ranyo Ashoka'''' (Raja Ashoka). It was the first-ever sculpture of Ashoka with his name inscribed.
• Bhabru inscription: It is the only inscription in the Boustrophedon script (bi-directional script from right to left and left to right in an alternate line).
• Junagadh inscription: It also includes the inscriptions of Saka ruler Rudraman and Gupta ruler Skandagupta.
• Kausambi (Allahabad) inscription: Along with Ashoka and Kuruwaki, inscriptions of Samudragupta and Jehangir are included.

Administration under Ashoka

There was a centralised administration under Ashoka.Ashoka was at the helm of his administration.

• Council of Ministers: It is evident from Rock Edicts III and IV that Ashoka consulted his ministers (mantrins) for general and emergency matters.
• Legal reforms: Ashoka introduced legal reforms like Danda Samahara and Vyavahara Samahara.
• Provincial division: Ashoka retained the traditional sub-division of the empire. But divided provinces into Aharas or Vishyas, which were further subdivided into villages.
• Judicial: Granting of pardon was introduced during Ashoka’s reign.
• Ashokan edicts mention jail and jail officials.
• The Mahattas:
• Dhamma Mahattas: To look after the spiritual well-being of the people and to speed up the progress of Dhamma.
• Adhyaksha Mahattas: To look after the well-being of the women.
• Anta Mahattas: To look after the general administration of frontier provinces.
• Nagar Mahattas: In charge of the cities and towns.
• Rajukas: Administrative plans and welfare reforms were implemented by them.

Society and Religion under Ashoka

Ashoka’s social and religious policy was aligned with the policy of dhamma and based on benevolence, tolerance and egalitarian principles. Ashoka gave patronage to both orthodox and heterodox religions/sects of his time. For example, he gave donations to Brahmins, and Ajivika sects and a special emphasis on Buddhism.

• Ashoka’s efforts to propagate Buddhism:
• Buddhism flourished under Ashoka’s patronage. He built several stupas and monasteries. For example, Sanchi and Bharhut stupa.
• The symbols and motives for the number of administrative infrastructures that he built were related to Buddhism and Buddha’s life.
• He visited the birthplace of Buddha in 241 B.C. and other holy places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.
• He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra. Missionaries for spreading Buddhism were also sent to Burma and Central Asia.
• He convened the Third Buddhist Council in 250 B.C. to strengthen the Sangha and to free the Buddhist order from dissidents and divergence from Hinayana. The Council was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.

Economy under Ashoka

Economic activities under the Mauryan Empire and specifically under Ashoka flourished to the extent that the Empire itself accounted for 1/3rd of the world’s GDP at the time. During this time, agriculture was developed, population and settlement sizes increased, crafts became more specialised, and both domestic and international trade grew during this time.

• Land Tax: Mauryans, and especially Ashoka, attached great importance to land revenue.
• Samaharta was in charge of land revenue.
• Trade and Commerce: At the crossroads of the Northern trade route (Uttarapatha) and the Southern trade route, trade and commerce under Ashoka flourished. 
• His contribution to the construction of the Northern trade route was utilised by Sher Shah Suri, which came to be known as the Grand Trunk Road.
• State administration under Ashoka took up the organisation of trade. This administrative control on production and distribution made it more efficient.
• Samsthadhyaksha was appointed to look after the market to check the unfair practices by traders.
• Guilds (sreni): Merchants and artisans were organised along guild lines.
• Urban Economy: With rising trade, urban economic centres flourished.