Otoliths

Climate change has become a pressing concern affecting ecosystems worldwide, including marine habitats. Understanding how animals adapt to changing environmental conditions is crucial for assessing the impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

Otoliths as Environmental Indicators

• Otolith Composition and Significance:

• Otoliths, small calcified structures in fish ears, function akin to tree rings, preserving information about the fish''s age and environmental exposure.
• They serve as archives of a fish''s life, containing valuable chemical information related to environmental conditions during its lifespan.

• Decoding Otolith Chemistry:

• Recent advancements in scientific techniques enable the decoding of otolith chemical composition, revealing insights into metabolic activity, energy expenditure, and environmental influences experienced by fish.

Impact of Temperature on Metabolism

• Temperature as a Vital Factor:

• Temperature variations play a pivotal role in affecting metabolic rates and physiological functions in marine organisms.
• Rising temperatures due to climate change trigger alterations in metabolic processes, influencing energy allocation for vital functions.

• Differential Responses in Animal Species:

• Animals exhibit varied responses to temperature shifts based on their habitat and adaptation levels.
• Understanding these responses aids in predicting species vulnerability to changing climatic conditions.

Study on Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

• Research Insights:

• Recent research focusing on Atlantic bluefin tuna has utilized otolith analysis to decipher metabolic responses to temperature changes.
• Findings reveal that rising temperatures impact the metabolic rates of young bluefin tuna, particularly affecting their energy utilization.

• Population Recovery and Vulnerability:

• Differential recovery rates between Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean tuna populations are observed.
• Increased temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico hinder the growth and recovery of young tuna due to surpassing optimal temperature thresholds.

Otoliths

• Also known as ear stones or ear bones, they are calcareous structures found in the inner ears of fish, reptiles, birds, and some mammals, including humans.
• These structures serve as sensory organs involved in balance, equilibrium, and hearing.
• Otolith rings refer to the growth rings present in these structures, which hold valuable information about the age, growth, and environmental history of the organism.

Structure and Function of Otoliths:

• Composition: Otoliths are composed mainly of calcium carbonate and a small amount of protein. They come in various shapes and sizes, depending on the species.
• Sensory Function: Otoliths play a crucial role in detecting movements and orientation. Tiny hair cells within the inner ear detect the movement of the otoliths, allowing organisms to perceive changes in position, acceleration, and gravitational forces.
• Growth Rings: Otoliths possess concentric rings, similar to tree rings, which form as a result of daily or seasonal growth patterns. These rings contain valuable information about the age and life history of the organism.

Importance of Otolith Rings:

• Age Determination: Counting the rings within otoliths is a common method used by scientists to estimate the age of fish and other species. Each ring typically represents a specific time period, allowing researchers to track the age of the organism.
• Environmental Records: Otolith rings can provide insights into the environmental conditions experienced by the organism. Factors such as temperature changes, water quality variations, and stress events can leave distinct marks or abnormalities in the rings, aiding in the study of past environments and climate changes.
• Fisheries Management: Understanding the age and growth patterns of fish species through otolith analysis is crucial for fisheries management. It helps in determining sustainable fishing practices, setting fishing quotas, and understanding population dynamics.

Techniques Used in Otolith Analysis:

• Otolith Extraction: Otoliths are typically removed from the inner ear of the organism, cleaned, and prepared for analysis.
• Microscopy: High-resolution microscopy techniques are used to examine the otolith rings and count the growth increments.
• Isotopic and Elemental Analysis: Scientists use various chemical analyses, including stable isotopes and elemental composition, to gather information about the environmental conditions during the otolith''s formation.
• Computer Imaging and Modeling: Advanced imaging techniques and computer modeling are employed to analyze and interpret otolith data accurately.

Applications of Otolith Research:

• Fisheries Biology: Otolith analysis helps in assessing fish stocks, understanding fish growth rates, and studying migration patterns, essential for sustainable fisheries management.
• Ecological Studies: Otoliths provide valuable data for studying the life history, movement patterns, and responses of organisms to environmental changes.
• Paleoecological Research: Otoliths retrieved from archaeological sites or sediment cores provide information about past ecosystems and environmental conditions.

The study of fish otoliths provides valuable insights into the impacts of climate change on marine life. Understanding metabolic responses and vulnerabilities of species like Atlantic bluefin tuna highlights the urgent need for adaptive conservation measures to safeguard marine biodiversity in a changing climate.

Cassiopeia A (Cas A)

The Webb''s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) has captured Cas A with unprecedented clarity, revealing the intricate aftermath of the star''s explosion. This supernova remnant, located 11,000 light-years away in the constellation Cassiopeia, is one of the most extensively studied objects in the universe.

• Cassiopeia A (Cas A) is a well-known and intensely studied supernova remnant (SNR) located in the constellation Cassiopeia, approximately 11,000 light-years away from Earth.
• It represents the remnants of a massive star that exploded in a supernova event, which was observed by Earth''s inhabitants around the year 1680.

Key Characteristics of Cassiopeia A

• Supernova Explosion: The supernova that created Cassiopeia A occurred nearly 340 years ago, but its light only reached Earth in the late 17th century. This makes Cas A one of the youngest known supernova remnants in our Milky Way galaxy.
• Structure and Appearance: The remnant spans about 10 light-years in diameter and is composed of rapidly expanding debris from the exploded star. Observations across different wavelengths, including radio, infrared, optical, and X-ray, have revealed various structures and elements within the remnant.
• Elemental Composition: Cassiopeia A is enriched with various heavy elements, including oxygen, silicon, sulfur, and iron. These elements were forged in the supernova explosion and later dispersed into space, eventually becoming part of new stars, planets, and celestial bodies.
• Neutron Star Formation: At the core of Cassiopeia A lies a dense stellar corpse known as a neutron star. This neutron star is a super-dense object formed from the collapsed core of the massive star that underwent the supernova explosion. It''s spinning rapidly, emitting powerful beams of radiation, and occasionally emitting pulses of radio waves, thus classified as a pulsar.

Research and Discoveries

• Multi-Wavelength Observations: Astronomers have extensively studied Cas A using various telescopes across different wavelengths. These observations have provided insights into the remnant''s dynamics, elemental composition, shockwaves, and the evolution of supernova remnants.
• Elemental Synthesis: Cas A''s analysis has significantly contributed to our understanding of nucleosynthesis, the process by which heavier elements are formed in the universe. The supernova explosion in Cas A played a vital role in dispersing these elements into space, enriching the interstellar medium.
• Neutron Star Insights: The neutron star at the center of Cassiopeia A has been a subject of intense study. Researchers use its behavior, including its rapid rotation and occasional emissions, to understand the extreme physics of neutron stars, magnetic fields, and their role in the universe.

Significance and Ongoing Studies

• Astrophysical Laboratory: Cassiopeia A serves as a laboratory for understanding the late stages of stellar evolution, supernova explosions, and the subsequent effects on interstellar material and cosmic evolution.
• Continued Observations: Ongoing observations with advanced telescopes and instruments aim to delve deeper into the structure and dynamics of Cassiopeia A, furthering our understanding of the physics behind supernovae, neutron stars, and their impact on the universe.

Chandra X-ray Observatory

• Purpose and Function: Launched in 1999, Chandra is a space-based telescope designed to observe X-rays from high-energy regions in the universe. It helps astronomers study celestial objects such as black holes, neutron stars, supernova remnants, galaxy clusters, and active galactic nuclei emitting X-rays.
• Observational Capabilities: Chandra has high-resolution X-ray optics that allow it to capture incredibly detailed images of X-ray emissions. It detects X-rays coming from extremely hot regions in the universe, revealing processes involving temperatures in millions of degrees Celsius that are invisible in other wavelengths.
• Discoveries: Chandra has contributed significantly to our understanding of the violent processes occurring in the universe, such as the dynamics of black holes, the behavior of matter in extreme environments, and the interactions of cosmic structures.
• Technology: Chandra uses four sets of nested mirrors to focus X-rays onto its detectors, providing precise and high-resolution images. Its instruments include imaging detectors and spectrometers specifically designed for studying X-ray emissions.

Hubble Space Telescope

• Purpose and Function: Launched in 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is one of the most famous telescopes, observing primarily in visible, ultraviolet, and near-infrared wavelengths. It has provided breathtaking images of distant galaxies, nebulae, stars, and planets within our solar system.
• Observational Capabilities: Hubble''s location above Earth''s atmosphere allows it to capture clear and detailed images with minimal distortion. Its instruments include cameras, spectrographs, and other scientific instruments that enable astronomers to study a wide range of cosmic phenomena.
• Discoveries: Hubble has made numerous groundbreaking discoveries, including observations of distant galaxies and the measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe (Hubble''s Law). It has provided key insights into the age of the universe, the formation of galaxies, and the existence of black holes.
• Upgrades and Maintenance: Over its operational life, Hubble has been serviced and upgraded by astronauts during multiple Space Shuttle missions. These servicing missions have extended its lifespan and improved its capabilities, allowing it to continue producing groundbreaking science.

Cassiopeia

• It is a prominent and easily recognizable constellation in the northern sky.

Overview:

• Location and Visibility: Located in the northern celestial hemisphere, Cassiopeia is visible at different times of the year depending on the observer''s latitude. For northern observers, it is circumpolar, meaning it never sets and is visible year-round.
• Shape and Stars: The five main stars that form Cassiopeia''s outline are Alpha Cassiopeiae (Shedir), Beta Cassiopeiae (Caph), Gamma Cassiopeiae (Tsih), Delta Cassiopeiae (Ruchbah), and Epsilon Cassiopeiae (Segin). Together, these stars create the distinctive shape that resembles a "W" or an "M."
• Mythological Significance: In Greek mythology, Queen Cassiopeia was punished by the gods for her vanity and boastfulness. She was placed in the sky along with her family as constellations, forever circling the celestial pole.

Key Features and Objects Associated with Cassiopeia:

• Deep-Sky Objects: While not as abundant in deep-sky objects as some other constellations, Cassiopeia hosts several interesting celestial objects, including open star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies.
• The Heart Nebula (IC 1805): A large emission nebula in Cassiopeia resembling a heart shape, it is a region of active star formation and is part of the Perseus Arm of our Milky Way galaxy.
• The Pacman Nebula (NGC 281): Another emission nebula, it is named for its resemblance to the video game character Pac-Man when observed in certain images.
• Open Clusters: Cassiopeia contains several open star clusters, such as Messier 52 (M52) and NGC 457, both of which are visible with binoculars or small telescopes.
• Quasars and Galaxies: Some galaxies and quasars are also found within the boundaries of Cassiopeia, though they may require larger telescopes for observation.

Astronomical Significance:

• Navigation Aid: Cassiopeia is used as a navigational reference for locating other constellations, including the North Star (Polaris) in the constellation Ursa Minor, which lies close to Cassiopeia.
• Astronomical Observations: Astronomers often study objects within Cassiopeia to explore aspects of star formation, stellar evolution, and cosmology.
• Cultural Significance: The constellation''s distinctive shape and position in the northern sky have made it a subject of fascination and storytelling across various cultures throughout history.

Cassiopeia A continues to be a crucial object of study in astrophysics, providing astronomers with valuable insights into the life cycle of stars, the formation of heavy elements, and the extreme environments created by supernova explosions. Its observations contribute significantly to our understanding of the universe''s fundamental processes.

Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI) Summit

• The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI) Summit kickstarted in New Delhi, with Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurating the event.
• India is negotiating with the 28 other member countries to arrive at a consensus on a declaration document on the proper use of AI, the guardrails for the technology and how it can be democratised.

Global Partnership on AI (GPAI)

• Objectives: GPAI is a multi-stakeholder initiative focused on bridging the gap between theory and practice in AI. It involves various stakeholders like governments, industry experts, civil society, international organizations, and academia. The initiative aims to support cutting-edge research, address AI-related priorities, and promote international cooperation in AI development.
• Declaration Document: The summit seeks to create a declaration document that outlines the proper use of AI, sets guardrails for the technology, and emphasizes the democratization of AI. This declaration is expected to encompass discussions on evaluating AI in sustainable agriculture, collaborative AI, and aligning with India''s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) approach.

India''s Stance on AI at GPAI

• DPI Approach: India intends to apply its Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) approach to AI. Similar to Aadhaar and Unified Payments Interface (UPI), this approach aims to build underlying systems facilitating the proliferation of AI. India seeks to develop robust databases and computing capacities to support AI''s wider implementation.
• Summit Agenda: India''s emphasis at the GPAI Summit revolves around evaluating AI in sustainable agriculture and fostering collaborative AI. These align with previous GPAI themes like healthcare, climate action, and building resilient societies.

Global Conversation on AI Regulation

• EU''s AI Act: The European Union has recently passed the AI Act, introducing strict safeguards on AI use, including restrictions on facial recognition and AI manipulation of human behavior. It aims to address concerns about AI misuse and empower individuals to lodge complaints against violations.
• AI Safety Summit: The UK hosted an AI Safety Summit where major countries agreed on the need for global action to address potential risks associated with AI, acknowledging risks related to cybersecurity, biotechnology, disinformation, bias, and privacy.
• US Executive Order: The United States issued an executive order aimed at safeguarding against AI threats and providing oversight over safety benchmarks used by companies evaluating generative AI models. This step was seen as the Biden Administration''s initial move to regulate advancing AI technology.

GPAI

• The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI) is an international initiative established to guide the responsible development and utilization of artificial intelligence (AI), adhering to human rights and democratic values.
• It was proposed by Canada and France during the 2018 G7 summit and formally launched in June 2020, hosted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

Objectives and Structure of GPAI:

• Objectives: GPAI aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice in AI by supporting research and applied activities that are pertinent to policymakers in the AI realm. It brings together expertise from various sectors such as industry, civil society, governments, and academia to collaborate on addressing the challenges and opportunities posed by AI.
• Membership: The partnership initially began with fifteen founding members, including countries like Canada, France, Germany, India, Japan, the United States, and the European Union. Since then, its membership has expanded to include more nations, with the current count standing at 29 members.
• Secretariat and Governance: The OECD hosts a dedicated secretariat to support GPAI''s governing bodies and activities. It operates across several Working Groups focusing on themes like Responsible AI, Data Governance, Future of Work, and Innovation & Commercialization. These Working Groups are supported by Centers of Expertise in Montreal and Paris.
• Leadership and Presidency: GPAI has a Steering Committee and a Multi Stakeholder Group (MEG). The chairs of these groups change periodically, with different countries taking up the presidency. Canada, France, Japan, and India have assumed the presidency in different years since its inception in 2020.

Key Developments and Collaborations:

• UNESCO joined GPAI as an observer in December 2020.
• The membership increased with countries like Czechia, Israel, and several EU nations joining in November 2021.
• Themes of collaboration include Responsible AI, Data Governance, Future of Work, and Innovation & Commercialization, each supported by specific centers.
• The leadership rotates, with different countries hosting and chairing meetings to steer GPAI''s agenda.
• Unanimously adopted by 29 member countries, underscoring the need to mitigate risks related to AI development and deployment while promoting innovation.
• Emphasizes the economic potential of advanced AI systems for growth, innovation, and job creation across diverse sectors.
• Advocates for a global framework rooted in democratic values, human rights, dignity, personal data protection, intellectual property rights, privacy, and security for responsible AI use.
• Encourages equitable access to essential resources for AI innovation such as computing, diverse high-quality datasets, algorithms, and software.
• Recognizes the agriculture sector as a thematic priority for AI innovation.
• Commits to diverse membership, particularly focusing on low- and middle-income countries to ensure a broad range of expertise and shared experiences based on common values.
• Highlights Senegal''s elevation to the GPAI steering committee, indicating active participation within the grouping. 
• New Delhi Declaration seeks a balance between promoting innovation and addressing AI-related risks.
• Bletchley Park Declaration (UK AI Safety Summit) prioritizes tackling potential AI risks, focusing on security and safety concerns related to AI systems.
• Shifted from previously considering no legal intervention in AI regulation to actively formulating regulations based on a "risk-based, user-harm" approach.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during the GPAI Summit, acknowledged AI''s dual potential as a developmental tool and a potential hazard, stressing the need for a global framework ensuring responsible AI use.
• Incident involving deepfakes of popular personalities prompted discussions on concrete legislative steps to combat AI-based misinformation, potentially leading to new laws or amendments.
• The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) proposed establishing a domestic statutory authority to regulate AI through a "risk-based framework," suggesting collaborations with international agencies for responsible AI use.

Conclusion

The GPAI operates as a collaborative platform for international cooperation on AI, pooling expertise from various domains to address the ethical, regulatory, and practical challenges of AI adoption while promoting its responsible and ethical development globally.

India''s involvement in the GPAI Summit signifies its commitment to shaping global conversations on AI regulation, emphasizing collaborative efforts to ensure AI''s ethical and responsible utilization across sectors like agriculture, healthcare, and beyond.

Karrar combat drones

• Iran has unveiled advanced Karrar combat drones armed with air-to-air missiles, enhancing its air defence capabilities.
• Dozens of Karrar drones with an operational range of up to 1,000 kilometres will be deployed along the country''s borders.
• Majid Air-to-Air Missiles: The Karrar interceptor drone, initially introduced in 2010, now incorporates the ''Majid'' thermal missile, which reportedly has an eight-kilometer range. This missile was developed entirely within Iran. 

Concerns Over Iran''s Military Developments

• Various nations, particularly the United States and Israel, have expressed concerns regarding Iran''s continuous development of its military arsenal, dating back to the 1980s, initially stemming from its war with Iraq.
• There are allegations that Iran is supporting allies in the Middle East and supplying drones to groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Houthi rebels in Yemen.
• Additionally, there are accusations, which Iran denies, of supplying drones to Russia for use in the Ukraine conflict.
• In response to these alleged arms sales, Western governments have imposed multiple rounds of sanctions on Iran.

Karrar

• The HESA Karrar is an Iranian jet-powered target drone manufactured by Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industrial Company (HESA) since 2010.
• Derived from the American Beechcraft MQM-107 Streaker target drone, and potentially incorporating elements from the South African Skua, it was developed during the Ahmadinejad presidency.

Design and Features:

• Physical Structure: The Karrar features a small, clipped delta wing, a cylindrical, blunt-nosed fuselage, and twin arrowhead-shaped tailfins. It has a dorsal air intake for the engine and utilizes a rocket-assist system for takeoff, recovered by a parachute.
• Capabilities: While it''s used primarily as a target drone for air-defense crew training, reports suggest it has evolved to carry armaments such as the Shahab-e-Saqeb missile and the Majid heat-seeking missile, extending its functionality to hitting air targets.
• Flight Characteristics: Capable of high and low altitude flight, day and night operation, and following pre-programmed flight paths or updated instructions during flight. It''s purported to have an autopilot system with INS and/or GPS guidance and may possess terrain-following capabilities.
• Payload: The Karrar can carry a range of armaments, including bombs like the Mk 82 general-purpose bomb, anti-ship missiles such as the Nasr-1 or Kowsar, and satellite-guided glide bombs like the Balaban.

Operational History:

• Unveiling: Unveiled in 2010 by Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, it was presented as a "long-range bomber drone," considered Iran''s first long-range UAV.
• Export and Use: Reports indicate its export to groups like Hezbollah and its deployment in conflicts like the Syrian Civil War. It''s been used in training exercises for various air defense systems and weapons.
• Debate on Capability: While Iranian sources tout its weapon deployment capabilities, some analysts question these claims, suggesting it''s primarily a target drone.
• Ongoing Use: The Karrar continues to be employed in Iran''s air defense force training, frequently utilized to test various surface-to-air missile systems and air-to-air missiles.

The unveiling of these advanced combat drones equipped with air-to-air missiles marks a significant development in Iran''s defense capabilities, prompting international attention and raising concerns among some nations regarding the implications of Iran''s military advancements and alleged arms dealings in the Middle East and beyond.

VINBAX-23

• The Joint Military Exercise VINBAX-2023, in its fourth edition, involves the participation of the Indian Armed Forces contingent along with the Vietnam People’s Army contingent.
• The exercise is taking place in Hanoi, Vietnam from 11th to 21st December 2023.
• History of VINBAX: The VINBAX exercise was initiated in 2018, with the first edition conducted in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. It is an annual training event conducted alternately in India and Vietnam. The previous edition took place at Chandimandir Military Station in August 2022.
• Objectives: The primary aim of this joint exercise is to bolster collaborative partnerships, enhance inter-operability, and share best practices between the Indian and Vietnamese armed forces, particularly focusing on Peace Keeping Operations under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.
• Nature of Exercises: VINBAX-2023 is planned as a Command Post Exercise combined with a Field Training Exercise, concentrating on the deployment and utilization of an Engineer Company and a Medical Team.
• Training Focus: The exercise will involve the exchange of tactical strategies, modern construction techniques for roads, culverts, helipads, and military structures. Moreover, there will be rehearsals related to combat engineering and combat medical tasks.
• Validation Exercise: The exercise will conclude with a Validation Exercise where the achieved standards and skills by both contingents will be demonstrated, simulating scenarios similar to deployments in United Nations’ missions globally.

Expected Outcomes

• Enhanced understanding and interoperability between the Indian and Vietnamese contingents.
• Strengthening of defense cooperation and mutual learning through the exchange of tactics, techniques, and procedures.
• Improvement in joint capabilities for United Nations’ peacekeeping operations and military contingents'' worldwide deployment.

Overall, the VINBAX-2023 exercise aims to foster deeper cooperation and understanding between the armed forces of India and Vietnam, thereby reinforcing their military capabilities and collaboration in the interest of peacekeeping and defense initiatives.

‘Mission Antarctica’

• Raksha Rajya Mantri Shri Ajay Bhatt flagged-in, in New Delhi on December 13, 2023, a team of Himalayan Mountaineering Institute, Darjeeling that carried out ‘Mission Antarctica’.
• The expedition, which commenced in 2021, was undertaken by a team of three trekkers, led by Group Captain Jai Kishan.

Antarctica

• Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent in terms of total area as it is larger than both Oceania and Europe.
• Antarctica is a unique continent in that it does not have a native human population.
• There are no countries in Antarctica, although seven nations claim different parts of it: New Zealand, Australia, France, Norway, the United Kingdom, Chile, and Argentina.
• Despite its size and harsh environment, Antarctica is vulnerable to damage from human activities.
• The continent of Antarctica comprises the majority of the Antarctic region.
• The Antarctic Convergence encompasses a frigid, desolate territory in the Southern Hemisphere known as the Antarctic.
• The Antarctic Convergence is an irregular line of latitude where frigid, northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet warmer ocean waters.
• The Antarctic takes up roughly 20% of the Southern Hemisphere.
• The Antarctic also includes island territories within the Antarctic Convergence.
• The islands of the Antarctic region are:
• The South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands, South Georgia, and the South Sandwich Islands, all claimed by the United Kingdom;
• Peter I Island and Bouvet Island, claimed by Norway;
• Heard and McDonald Islands, claimed by Australia;
• Scott Island and the Balleny Islands, claimed by New Zealand.

Physical Geography of Antarctica

• The Antarctic Ice Sheet is the world''s largest single chunk of ice.
• The ice surface expands substantially from approximately three million square kilometers (1.2 million square miles) at the end of summer to approximately 19 million square kilometers (7.3 million square miles) by winter.
• The Transantarctic Mountains, which divide Antarctica into eastern and western areas, have multiple high peaks.
• Without ice, Antarctica would form a massive peninsula and archipelago of mountainous islands known as Lesser Antarctica, as well as a single enormous continent around the size of Australia known as Greater Antarctica.
• Greater Antarctica, or East Antarctica, is composed of older, igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Lesser Antarctica, or West Antarctica, is made up of younger, volcanic and sedimentary rock. It is part of the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean.
• Mount Erebus, located on Antarctica’s Ross Island, is the southernmost active volcano on Earth.

Climate and Waters

• Antarctica has a harsh, arid climate.
• The average winter temperature along Antarctica''s coast ranges from -10° to -30° C (14° to -22° F).
• Coastal locations in the summer have temperatures that range from 0°C (32°F) to 9°C (48°F).
• The Antarctic region is crucial to global climate systems. It is an essential component of the Earth''s thermal balance.
• Ice reflects more light than land or ocean surfaces. The vast Antarctic Ice Sheet reflects a significant amount of solar radiation away from the Earth''s surface.
• The reflectance of the Earth''s surface diminishes when global ice cover (ice sheets and glaciers) declines.
• This allows more incoming solar radiation to be absorbed by the Earth''s surface, resulting in an unbalanced heat balance associated with global warming, the current phase of climate change.
• The waters surrounding Antarctica constitute an important component of the "ocean conveyor belt," a global system in which water travels around the world based on density and currents.
• Antarctic Bottom Water, the chilly seas surrounding Antarctica, are so dense that they push up against the ocean floor.
• Warmer waters rise or upwell as a result of the Antarctic Bottom Water.
• Antarctic upwelling is so powerful that it aids in the movement of water around the entire planet. Strong winds that circumnavigate Antarctica contribute to this travel.
• Earth''s waters would not flow in a balanced and effective manner without the assistance of the oceans surrounding Antarctica.
• The National Geographic Society designated the Antarctic Ocean as the Southern Ocean in 2021.

Flora and fauna

• Lichens, mosses, and terrestrial algae are among the few plant species found in Antarctica.
• The northern and coastal sections of Antarctica have more of this vegetation, while the interior has little to no vegetation.
• Thousands of species, including krill, feed on plankton. In the chilly Antarctic waters, fish and a wide diversity of marine mammals flourish.
• Antarctica has healthy populations of blue (Balaenoptera musculus), fin (Balaenoptera physalus), humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), right, minke, sei (Balaenoptera borealis), and sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus).
• The leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) is a top predator in Antarctica. The leopard seal is one of the most vicious marine predators.
• The penguin is undoubtedly the most well-known animal in Antarctica. They''ve adapted to the frigid waters of the shore.

Indian Antarctic Program

• The Indian Antarctic Programme is managed by the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), which is part of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• The first Indian Antarctic expedition took place in
• After India ratified the Antarctic Treaty in 1983 and erected the Dakshin Gangotri Antarctic research station, which was replaced by the Maitri location in 1989, the initiative gained global acceptance.
• Bharati, a base composed of 134 shipping containers, was the most recently operational in
• As part of the initiative, India has launched 40 scientific expeditions to the Antarctic and is studying atmospheric, biological, earth, chemical, and pharmaceutical sciences.

Almora Fault

There has been an increase in the number of earthquakes from January to November 2023 compared to the last three years, Union Minister of Earth Sciences Kiren Rijiju told the Lok Sabha on December 6, 2023.

• However, experts have questioned the government’s information on the causes of the increase in earthquakes.
• It is a geological fault that runs through Western Nepal and into India''s Uttarakhand area.
• It is located in the Himalayan fault zone on the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT).
• In Kumaon, Uttarakhand, there are two thrusts: the South Almora Thrust and the North Almora Thrust.
• MBT (Main Boundary Thrust): This is a prominent Himalayan fault that separates the Lesser Himalayas from the Sub-Himalayas.
• The Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) is a décollement under the Himalaya Range.
• This thrust fault follows a NW-SE strike, reminiscent of an arc, and gently dips about 10 degrees towards the north, beneath the region.
• It is the largest active continental megathrust fault in the world.

Background Seismicity and Recent Spike

Consistent Background Seismicity:

• The Earth Sciences Minister emphasized the consistent level of background seismic activity in the regions under consideration, indicating normal earthquake occurrences.

Recent Earthquake Surge:

• Despite the persistent background seismicity, specific locations in north India and Nepal suffered a surge in seismic occurrences, which was linked in part to the activation of the Almora fault.

The Almora Fault''s Role in Earthquake Occurrences

Significant Earthquakes:

• In recent seismic activity, the Almora fault, a critical geological structure in the western Himalayas, has played a critical role.

Key Mainshocks and Their Magnitudes:

• Notable earthquakes were observed on January 24 (5.8 magnitude), October 3 (6.2 magnitude), and November 3 (6.4 magnitude), all of which were associated to the Almora fault.

Geological Significance:

• The fault line is located near active faults in the Himalayan region, where the Indian plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate, resulting in frequent seismic occurrences.

Impact and Concerns

Geographical Impact:

• The seismic occurrences had a wide-ranging impact, with tremors felt throughout a large area.
• For example, the January 24 Nepal earthquake was felt powerfully in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

Concerns about safety and preparedness:

• The recent activation of the Almora fault has sparked worries about area safety measures and earthquake preparedness.

Efforts at Mitigation and Safety Measures

Initiatives of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS):

• The BIS has played a major part in the release of the Seismic Zoning Map of India, categorising locations into distinct danger zones (II to V), and providing standards for the construction of earthquake-resistant structures.

Interventions by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):

• To improve preparedness and response capacities in seismic zones, the NDMA is actively adopting preventative measures including earthquake exercises, awareness programs, and incident management tactics.

Lessons and Continued Vigilance

Aftermath and Aftershocks:

• More than 382 aftershocks were recorded in the aftermath of the earthquakes, particularly the severe November 3 quake with a magnitude of 6.4.
• It emphasized the importance of maintaining vigilance and adhering to safety protocols in seismically active areas.

Regional Security and Current Concerns:

• The latest seismic incidents highlight the ongoing concern for regional safety and the importance of ongoing work in earthquake preparedness and risk reduction techniques.

The Earth Sciences Minister''s statement emphasized the heightened seismic activity in specific places caused by the activation of the Almora fault.

• By emphasizing the significance of geological structures such as the Almora fault and the subsequent impact on safety, the minister emphasizes the importance of proactive measures, guidelines, and initiatives aimed at mitigating earthquake risks and improving preparedness in earthquake-prone areas.

End-stage kidney failure

 Around 2 lakh Indians reach end-stage kidney failure annually, but only 12,000 receive transplants, creating a large gap.

• The demand for kidney transplants in India surpasses the availability of legally donated organs, leading to a black market for organs.
• Legal regulations, ethical concerns, and the disparity between organ supply and demand create a complex and challenging landscape.
• The exploitation of vulnerable individuals, particularly those in poverty, for organ donation, has been a major ethical issue, sparking debates about how to regulate and monitor transplant practices more effectively.
• Efforts to address these issues involve stricter regulations, increased awareness about organ donation, and improvements in healthcare infrastructure to facilitate legal and ethical organ transplants.

Kidney Transplant in India

• A kidney transplant involves replacing a diseased kidney with a healthy kidney from a live or deceased donor. The transplanted kidney takes over the filtration function of the failed kidneys, eliminating the need for dialysis.

• Kidneys, located on either side of the spine, play a crucial role in filtering waste, minerals, and fluids from the blood. Kidney failure can lead to the accumulation of harmful levels of waste and fluid in the body, raising blood pressure.

• Approximately 2 lakh patients in India await organ donation, with only around 15,000 donors available. The annual requirement for kidneys is estimated to be 2-3 lakh, but only about 12,000 transplants occur annually.
• The government is promoting deceased donors or cadaver donations to address the demand-supply gap. Post-2012, there has been an increase in organ donations, and India''s Kidney Transplant Programme is the second largest globally.
• Advances in immunosuppressive drugs and induction agents have reduced rejection events. Changes in transplant methods, including minimally invasive techniques, contribute to lower post-operative complications.
• Southern states like Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh perform relatively better in terms of transplantations and awareness. Chandigarh in the North has done well in terms of donors per million people.
• The cost of kidney transplants in private hospitals in India ranges from Rs. 5 to 6 lakh, with post-treatment monthly costs and lifelong medicines adding to the financial burden.

Indian Transplant Law

• India strictly prohibits organ donations in exchange for money to safeguard economically vulnerable donors from potential exploitation.
• Transplantation Act (1994): The law allows transplants from deceased donor pools or living donors primarily close relatives like parents, siblings, children, spouses, grandparents, or grandchildren. Altruistic donations from distant relatives or friends are allowed but undergo stringent scrutiny to prevent financial transactions.
• Documentation and Scrutiny: Rigorous documentation, including proof of identity, family relations, and financial status for both donors and recipients, is mandated. Interviews are conducted to verify relationships.

Challenges and Reasons for Kidney Trafficking

• High Demand: India faces a considerable gap between kidney demand and available transplants. Approximately 2 lakh Indians reach end-stage kidney failure annually, yet only around 12,000 kidney transplants are conducted annually.
• Accessibility and Cost: Kidney transplants are relatively affordable, making them a more feasible option. Over 500 centres in India facilitate kidney transplants, providing potential loopholes to bypass regulations.
• Viability and Durability: Kidneys have longer survival outside the body compared to other organs, making them preferable for both legal and illegal transactions.

Addressing the Challenges

• Promoting Deceased Donations: India aims to boost deceased donations by introducing an Aadhaar-linked registry, increasing awareness to encourage donations upon brain deaths. Currently, only 16% of transplants use deceased organs, a figure that experts believe can be significantly augmented with enhanced awareness.
• Reduction in Transplant Demand: Strategies to reduce the number of individuals requiring transplants through preventive healthcare could help bridge the demand-supply gap.

• The landscape of kidney transplants in India presents a multifaceted challenge involving stringent legalities, ethical concerns, and the need for enhanced awareness. The objective remains to facilitate ethical and accessible transplant avenues while curbing illegal activities and exploitation in organ transactions.

Around 2 lakh Indians reach end-stage kidney failure annually, but only 12,000 receive transplants, creating a large gap.

• The demand for kidney transplants in India surpasses the availability of legally donated organs, leading to a black market for organs.
• Legal regulations, ethical concerns, and the disparity between organ supply and demand create a complex and challenging landscape.
• The exploitation of vulnerable individuals, particularly those in poverty, for organ donation, has been a major ethical issue, sparking debates about how to regulate and monitor transplant practices more effectively.
• Efforts to address these issues involve stricter regulations, increased awareness about organ donation, and improvements in healthcare infrastructure to facilitate legal and ethical organ transplants.

Kidney Transplant in India

• A kidney transplant involves replacing a diseased kidney with a healthy kidney from a live or deceased donor. The transplanted kidney takes over the filtration function of the failed kidneys, eliminating the need for dialysis.
• Kidneys, located on either side of the spine, play a crucial role in filtering waste, minerals, and fluids from the blood. Kidney failure can lead to the accumulation of harmful levels of waste and fluid in the body, raising blood pressure.
• Approximately 2 lakh patients in India await organ donation, with only around 15,000 donors available. The annual requirement for kidneys is estimated to be 2-3 lakh, but only about 12,000 transplants occur annually.
• The government is promoting deceased donors or cadaver donations to address the demand-supply gap. Post-2012, there has been an increase in organ donations, and India''s Kidney Transplant Programme is the second largest globally.
• Advances in immunosuppressive drugs and induction agents have reduced rejection events. Changes in transplant methods, including minimally invasive techniques, contribute to lower post-operative complications.
• Southern states like Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh perform relatively better in terms of transplantations and awareness. Chandigarh in the North has done well in terms of donors per million people.
• The cost of kidney transplants in private hospitals in India ranges from Rs. 5 to 6 lakh, with post-treatment monthly costs and lifelong medicines adding to the financial burden.

Indian Transplant Law

• India strictly prohibits organ donations in exchange for money to safeguard economically vulnerable donors from potential exploitation.
• Transplantation Act (1994): The law allows transplants from deceased donor pools or living donors primarily close relatives like parents, siblings, children, spouses, grandparents, or grandchildren. Altruistic donations from distant relatives or friends are allowed but undergo stringent scrutiny to prevent financial transactions.
• Documentation and Scrutiny: Rigorous documentation, including proof of identity, family relations, and financial status for both donors and recipients, is mandated. Interviews are conducted to verify relationships.

Challenges and Reasons for Kidney Trafficking

• High Demand: India faces a considerable gap between kidney demand and available transplants. Approximately 2 lakh Indians reach end-stage kidney failure annually, yet only around 12,000 kidney transplants are conducted annually.
• Accessibility and Cost: Kidney transplants are relatively affordable, making them a more feasible option. Over 500 centres in India facilitate kidney transplants, providing potential loopholes to bypass regulations.
• Viability and Durability: Kidneys have longer survival outside the body compared to other organs, making them preferable for both legal and illegal transactions.

Addressing the Challenges

• Promoting Deceased Donations: India aims to boost deceased donations by introducing an Aadhaar-linked registry, increasing awareness to encourage donations upon brain deaths. Currently, only 16% of transplants use deceased organs, a figure that experts believe can be significantly augmented with enhanced awareness.
• Reduction in Transplant Demand: Strategies to reduce the number of individuals requiring transplants through preventive healthcare could help bridge the demand-supply gap.

• The landscape of kidney transplants in India presents a multifaceted challenge involving stringent legalities, ethical concerns, and the need for enhanced awareness. The objective remains to facilitate ethical and accessible transplant avenues while curbing illegal activities and exploitation in organ transactions.

Revised versions of Crminal Bills

The revised versions of Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, and Bharatiya Sakshya Bill were reintroduced in Parliament after undergoing amendments suggested by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs.

• The Union Government introduced three Bills in Lok Sabha in August 2023, to replace the Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860; the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (originally enacted in 1898); and the Indian Evidence Act, 1872.
• The new Bills—Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023, to replace the IPC; Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, for CrPC; and Bharatiya Sakshya (BS) Bill, 2023, for the Indian Evidence Act—were subsequently referred to a standing committee the same day.
• The committee proposed several key changes to the Bills. Subsequently, the Centre re-introduced the revamped criminal law Bills in Parliament’s winter session.
• These modifications aimed to address the committee''s concerns and improve the precision, fairness, and applicability of the laws concerning various criminal activities.

Changes made in the revised criminal reform bills

Handcuffs

• Initial Proposal: The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) initially allowed the use of handcuffs during arrests for individuals accused of serious offences, including "economic offences."
• Committee''s Recommendation: The committee suggested restricting the use of handcuffs to select heinous crimes like rape and murder, excluding economic offences due to their varying severity. They recommended deleting "economic offences" from the clause.
• Incorporated Change: The revised bill deleted "economic offences" from the clause and made the use of handcuffs for offences against the state more discretionary. It also extended the use of handcuffs to individuals being produced before a court.

Mercy Petitions

• Initial Provision: The BNSS allowed convicts facing death sentences or their relatives to file mercy petitions, subject to review by the Centre or state government''s Home Department.
• Committee''s Recommendation: The committee proposed establishing a quasi-judicial board for mercy petitions and setting a timeframe for their review.
• Incorporated Change: The provision allowing mercy petitions to be forwarded for review was deleted. Additionally, the scope of non-appealable orders under Articles 72 and 161 was broadened, making the Governor''s orders under Article 161 unappealable.

Preventive Detention Powers

• Initial Expansion: The BNSS expanded police powers for preventive action without specifying a time frame for detention.
• Committee''s Recommendation: The committee suggested specifying a time period for detention and clarifying ambiguous language.
• Incorporated Change: The new bill includes a 24-hour limit for detention and clarifies the use of the term "Magistrate" instead of "judicial magistrate."

Community Service

• Initial Provision: "Community service" was included as a penalty for specific offences without a clear definition.
• Committee''s Recommendation: Define "community service" and extend its application to specific offences.
• Incorporated Change: The revised BNSS now defines "community service" as court-ordered work benefiting the community without remuneration. Additionally, community service was extended as a punishment for unlawfully engaging public servants in trade and non-appearance in response to a proclamation under Section 84.

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023

• It is a proposed bill aiming to replace the Indian Penal Code of 1860. This bill introduces several changes in criminal offences and punishments.
• It covers a wide range of aspects, including terrorism, organised crime, sexual offences, and more.

Key changes proposed in this bill include:

Sedition

• The Indian Penal Code (IPC) defines sedition as bringing or attempting to bring hatred or contempt, or exciting disaffection towards the government.
• The Bill removes sedition as an offence and replaces it with penalties for activities such as exciting or attempting to excite secession, armed rebellion, subversive activities, encouraging separatist feelings, or endangering the sovereignty or unity of India.
• Offences under the new provisions may result in imprisonment of up to seven years or life imprisonment, along with a fine.

Terrorism

• The Bill defines terrorism as acts intending to threaten the unity, integrity, and security of the country, intimidate the public, or disturb public order.
• Includes the use of firearms, bombs, hazardous substances, destroying property, disrupting essential services, and activities listed in the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.
• Death or life imprisonment for acts resulting in death, imprisonment term between five years and life in other cases. Offenders may also face a fine of at least five lakh rupees.
• Conspiring, organizing, or assisting in preparing any terrorist act carries imprisonment between five years and life, along with a fine.

Organized Crime

• Continuing unlawful activities such as kidnapping, extortion, contract killing, land grabbing, financial scams, and cybercrime, carried out by violence or intimidation for material or financial benefit, by individuals or crime syndicates.
• Death or life imprisonment for offences resulting in death, imprisonment term between five years and life in other cases, along with a fine.

Petty Organized Crime

• Organized crimes cause general feelings of insecurity, committed by criminal groups/gangs, including pickpocketing, snatching, and theft.
• Attempting or committing petty organized crime is punishable with imprisonment between one and seven years and a fine.

Murder on Grounds of Caste or Race

• Murder committed by five or more people on specified grounds (race, caste, sex, place of birth, language, or personal belief) is punishable with imprisonment between seven years and life, or death, along with a fine.

Death Penalty for Gang Rape of Minors

• The bill extends the provision of the death penalty for gang rape to include victims under 18 years of age, broadening the scope beyond the previous provision which applied to victims below 12 years of age under the Indian Penal Code.

Sexual Intercourse by Deceitful Means

• This provision criminalizes sexual intercourse with a woman through deceit or a false promise of marriage without intending to fulfil it. The punishment could range from simple to rigorous imprisonment for up to 10 years, coupled with a fine.

Extending Offenses to Boys

• The Bill specifies that importing boys under the age of 18 years for illicit intercourse with another person will be an offence. This provision aligns the law with a gender-neutral approach concerning certain offences related to illicit activities involving minors.

The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita 2023

• The new legislation aims to replace the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. The Bill preserves most of the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, but also introduces some changes and reforms.
• The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 is the existing law that governs the process of arrest, trial, and bail for criminal offences under various laws such as the Indian Penal Code, 1860.

Key changes proposed under the bill include:

Detention of Undertrials

• Under the current Code, if an accused spends half of the maximum imprisonment period during investigation or trial, release on personal bond is mandated. The new bill modifies this, excluding release for offences punishable by life imprisonment or when facing multiple proceedings.
• First-time offenders may secure bail after completing one-third of the maximum imprisonment for the offence, necessitating an application by the jail superintendent.

Electronic Trials

• The Bill proposes that legal proceedings, including trials and inquiries, can be conducted in electronic mode. This means that court proceedings could take place through digital platforms or electronic communication systems.
• It allows for the production of electronic communication devices, such as mobile phones and computers, as potential sources of digital evidence during investigations or trials.

Medical Examination of Accused

• The existing legal framework allows the medical examination of accused individuals in specific cases, like rape, but limits the request for such examinations to at least a sub-inspector level police officer.
• The Bill suggests expanding this authority to any police officer, providing more flexibility in initiating medical examinations.

Forensic Investigation

• The Bill mandates forensic investigation for offences carrying a minimum punishment of seven years of imprisonment.
• It ensures that forensic experts visit crime scenes to collect evidence, and the entire process is documented using electronic devices. If a state lacks forensic facilities, it can utilize facilities in another state.

Prohibition of Carrying Arms

• The existing legal provision empowers District Magistrates to prohibit the carrying of arms in certain public situations for up to six months. The Bill proposes to omit this provision, possibly for reasons related to its non-notification or perceived redundancy.

Signatures, Finger Impressions, and Voice Samples

• The Bill expands the powers of Metropolitan/Judicial Magistrates to order the provision of not just specimen signatures and handwriting but also finger impressions and voice samples.
• Importantly, this can be done even for individuals who have not been arrested, broadening the scope of the magistrate''s authority.

Timelines for Procedures

• The Bill introduces specific timelines for various legal procedures, such as the submission of medical reports within seven days for cases involving rape victims.
• It sets timeframes for giving judgments, informing victims of investigation progress, and framing charges in session courts.

Trial in Absence of Offender

• The Bill allows for the conduct of trials and pronouncement of judgments in the absence of a proclaimed offender. This is applicable when the accused person has evaded trial, and there''s no immediate prospect of their arrest.

Metropolitan Magistrates

• The Bill omits the provision related to the notification of metropolitan areas and the appointment of Metropolitan Magistrates in cities or towns with a population exceeding one million. The reasons for this omission are not explicitly mentioned.

The Bhartiya Sakshya Bill 2023

• The proposal aimed at modernizing the rules governing the admissibility of evidence in legal proceedings in India. By repealing the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, it indicates an intent to update and adapt these rules to contemporary contexts.

Admissibility of electronic or digital records as evidence

• The bill aims to update the definition of documentary evidence to include electronic or digital records. It expands the scope to encompass information stored in various devices like smartphones, laptops, server logs, and even voice mails. This change essentially equates the legal effect of electronic records to that of paper records.

Oral evidence

• The proposed bill extends the definition of oral evidence to include information given electronically, acknowledging that statements made electronically can be considered as oral evidence.

Secondary evidence

• The bill expands the definition of secondary evidence. While primary evidence includes original documents and their electronic counterparts, secondary evidence now includes oral and written admissions, as well as the testimony of an expert in examining documents.
• It clarifies that secondary evidence might be necessary not only when the original document is inaccessible but also when the genuineness of the document is in question.

Production of documents

• The bill specifies that while witnesses summoned to produce documents must do so, the court will not demand privileged communications between Ministers and the President to be produced before it. This safeguards certain types of communications from mandatory production in court.

Joint trials

• In the context of joint trials involving multiple accused individuals, the bill elaborates on the treatment of confessions made by one accused that implicate others. It also clarifies that trials involving multiple individuals will still be considered joint trials even if one accused is absent or has not responded to an arrest warrant.

The success of these bills in achieving their intended outcomes will depend on effective implementation, ongoing evaluation, and responsiveness to emerging challenges. Public awareness and engagement will also play a crucial role in ensuring the success of these reforms.

''Unabated'' coal power

• According to a new deal struck at COP28 countries need to phase down ''unabated'' coal power.

‘Unabated’ fossil fuels

• When it comes to fossil fuels, “unabated” means doing nothing to reduce the carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases that are released from the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas.
• Conversely, “abated” refers to the attempts to decrease the release of polluting substances to an acceptable level.
• However, there isn’t any clarity on what this level is and how to get there. Moreover, there is no international or agreed-upon definition of the two phrases.

IPCC on Abated Fossil Fuels

• The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says unabated fossil fuels are those “without interventions that substantially reduce” greenhouse gas emissions. That would mean capturing at least 90% of CO2 from power plants, or up to 80% of the methane that leaks during energy production and transport, the report suggests.

CCS technologies

• Discussions around fossil fuel abatement largely revolve around CCS technologies — they capture emissions from power stations or industrial facilities and store them underground. But those discussions remain deeply polarised.
• While Oil and gas-producing companies and countries see carbon capture as a key component in plans to cut greenhouse gas emissions, climate activists and experts suggest that its role is limited.
• Recently, the European Union and 17 nations including Germany, France, Chile, New Zealand and climate-vulnerable island states, in a statement, said carbon capture technologies are no substitute for a drastic cut in fossil fuels and they shouldn’t be overused.

How beneficial are carbon capture and storage technologies?

• In its report, Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage, the International Energy Agency (IEA) said power and industrial plants that are equipped with modern CCS technologies capture around 90% of the CO2.
• However, a 2022 study by the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) found that most of the 13 flagship CCS projects worldwide that it analyzed have either underperformed or failed entirely.
• Another analysis by Climate Analytics, a Germany-based climate science and policy institute, revealed that reliance on CCS could release an extra 86 billion tonnes of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere between 2020 and 2050.
• If carbon capture rates only reach 50% rather than 95%, and upstream methane emissions are not reduced to low levels, this would pump 86 billion tonnes of GHG (greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere – equivalent to more than double the global CO2 emissions in 2023.
• Discussions around fossil fuels abatement are creating the false impression that CCS would help limit average global temperature below 1.5 degree Celsius even when there is an expansion of fossil fuel projects.
• However, scenarios that achieve the Paris Agreement’s 1.5°C limit sustainably show a near complete phase-out of fossil fuels by around 2050 with only a tiny amount of fossil CCS,” the analysis noted.
• CCS technologies are also very expensive. It’s cheaper to shut down a coal plant and replace it with some combination of wind, solar and batteries in comparison to attaching a carbon capture device to the plant.

Moving Ahead

• According to the deal struck at COP28, countries need to phase down unabated coal power.
• Many climate-vulnerable nations and experts are concerned that this would allow countries and fossil fuel companies to continue to burn coal as long as they capture the emissions and store it underground.
• The false promises of ‘abated’ fossil fuels risks climate finance being funnelled to fossil projects, particularly oil and gas, and will greenwash the ‘unabatable’ emissions from their final use, which account for 90% of fossil oil and gas emissions.

Global Stocktake Adopted

 The fifth (and probably final) iteration of the Global Stocktake (GST) text was released on December 13, 2023 and adopted with no objection at the closing plenary.

• The global stocktake is considered the central outcome of COP28 – as it contains every element that was under negotiation and can now be used by countries to develop stronger climate action plans due by 2025.

Highlights of the Global Stocktake

Fossil fuels

• Following concerns over the last draft which presented a list of actions on fossil fuels countries “could” take, the new iteration seems to have stronger language. It now calls on Parties to follow eight steps taking into account different pathways.
• The phase down of coal no longer includes a stop to new coal generation. An earlier point on “reducing both consumption and production” of fossil fuels has been replaced with “transitioning away”. 
• It must not come as a surprise that the language calling out production of fossil fuels is now missing. That is the trade off for taking away the ability for country Parties to approach actions as an optional menu.

• Right after the paragraph on fossil fuels, there is a mention of the role of transitional fuels to achieve the above. This references natural gas and was heavily stressed by Russia and Iran during the negotiations. 
• One highlight was the addition of recognising the role of carbon capture storage solutions “particularly in hard to abate sectors”. Emphasised by the European Union, this specification is expected to prevent abatement technology from being used as an excuse to expand fossil fuel production.  
• Elsewhere in mitigation, the text has removed the time period of 1850-2019 when talking about the depletion of the carbon budget by historical emissions. It does still, however, explicitly mention the pre-2020 gaps of developed countries in achieving the recommended emissions reduction. This was specifically pushed for by developing countries including India, African Group of Negotiators (AGN) and Group of 77 and China and actively opposed by the United States, EU, Australia and Canada. 
• There is a new mention recognising that emissions are projected to peak during 2020-2025 to limit warming to 1.5C. The paragraph also recognises that this peaking will take place in different timelines for countries depending on their national circumstances, thus accepting the different pathways language that many developing groups asked for. 

NDCs

• The first line to notice is that the paragraph speaking to countries to come with their next Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) first reaffirms the nationally determined nature of them. The text also recalls the mandate of the Paris Agreement to provide new NDCs every five years informed by the GST outcomes.
• Developing countries demanded that GST outcomes preserve the national sovereignty in enhancing NDCs. Whether a reaffirmation of the nationally determined nature of NDC will be enough remains to be seen.

There is acknowledgement that the successful achievement of NDCs in developing countries is subject to receiving adequate finance and other support. However, while earlier versions specifically highlighted that this must come from developed countries, there is no such accountability now. 

Adaptation 

• The adaptation section acknowledges the efforts of countries in developing climate adaptation plans, communications and actions. This recognition was an ask of many countries, particularly the developing. The text also acknowledges the existing gaps in resources for adequate planning in adaptation.

• A paragraph emphasises that adaptation action is critical in this decade and is subject to accelerated financial support. 
• However, a stark change shows up in other mentions of adaptation finance. They have all been moved to the means of implementation section from the earlier adaptation section. This ask was specifically from developed countries like the US and Australia. The developing countries had asked for adaptation finance to be part of the adaptation section. 

Finance

• The finance section of means of implementation has language specifically acknowledging the obligation of developed countries in leading climate finance. In this new version, there is also wording that climate finance must represent “a progression beyond previous efforts”, a point repeatedly emphasised by Global South groups like the AGN. 
• There is a paragraph detailing the role of the private sector in bridging finance gaps. Another one highlights the need to scale up additional, grant-based, highly concessional finance to support the just transition in developing countries. However, there is no specification on who must provide this grant-based finance.
• There were requests by developed countries for the text to acknowledge their efforts in meeting the $100 billion a year goal and very likely having met it this year. The new text instead puts the figure at $89.6 billion in 2021 and a “likelihood” of meeting the goal in 2022. 
• Subsequently, it notes the failure in meeting the $100 billion a year goal and encourages developed countries to strive to meet it through 2025 and beyond.
• On adaptation finance, the text calls for a report from developed countries on the doubling of adaptation finance from 2019-2025 next year, along with a call for a high-level ministerial dialogue to address the adaptation finance gap. 
• The loss and damage fund has been acknowledged along with a call for developed countries to continue taking the lead to fund it, although only in the finance section and not in the loss and damage section.
• Article 2.1c has been recognised in its complementarity with Article 9 of the Paris Agreement. The former speaks to aligning international finance flows with low carbon development, while the latter recognises that developed countries must provide finance to developing countries to assist both mitigation and adaptation. This complementarity was demanded by many developing countries who feared just a focus on Article 2.1c could be misinterpreted.

Summing up

• The stocktake recognizes the science that indicates global greenhouse gas emissions need to be cut 43% by 2030, compared to 2019 levels, to limit global warming to 1.5°C. But it notes Parties are off track when it comes to meeting their Paris Agreement goals.
• The stocktake calls on Parties to take actions towards achieving, at a global scale, a tripling of renewable energy capacity and doubling energy efficiency improvements by 2030. The list also includes accelerating efforts towards the phase-down of unabated coal power, phasing out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies, and other measures that drive the transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just, orderly and equitable manner, with developed countries continuing to take the lead.
• In the short-term, Parties are encouraged to come forward with ambitious, economy-wide emission reduction targets, covering all greenhouse gases, sectors and categories and aligned with the 1.5°C limit in their next round of climate action plans (known as nationally determined contributions) by 2025.

Helping countries strengthen resilience to the effects of climate change

• The two-week-long conference got underway with the World Climate Action Summit, which brought together 154 Heads of States and Government. Parties reached a historic agreement on the operationalization of the loss and damage fund and funding arrangements – the first time a substantive decision was adopted on the first day of the conference. Commitments to the fund started coming in moments after the decision was gaveled, totaling more than USD 700 million to date.
• There was more progress on the loss and damage agenda with an agreement also reached that the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction and the UN Office for Project Services will host the secretariat of the Santiago Network for Loss and Damage. This platform will catalyze technical assistance to developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.
• Parties agreed on targets for the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) and its framework, which identify where the world needs to get to in order to be resilient to the impacts of a changing climate and to assess countries’ efforts. The GGA framework reflects a global consensus on adaptation targets and the need for finance, technology and capacity-building support to achieve them.

Increasing climate finance

• Climate finance took center stage at the conference, with Stiell repeatedly calling it the “great enabler of climate action.”
• The Green Climate Fund (GCF) received a boost to its second replenishment with six countries pledging new funding at COP28 with total pledges now standing at a record USD 12.8 billion from 31 countries, with further contributions expected.
• Eight donor governments announced new commitments to the Least Developed Countries Fund and Special Climate Change Fund totaling more than USD 174 million to date, while new pledges, totaling nearly USD 188 million so far, were made to the Adaptation Fund at COP28.
• However as highlighted in the global stocktake, these financial pledges are far short of the trillions eventually needed to support developing countries with clean energy transitions, implementing their national climate plans and adaptation efforts.
• In order to deliver such funding, the global stocktake underscores the importance of reforming the multilateral financial architecture, and accelerating the ongoing establishment of new and innovative sources of finance.
• At COP28, discussions continued on setting a ‘new collective quantified goal on climate finance’ in 2024, taking into account the needs and priorities of developing countries. The new goal, which will start from a baseline of USD 100 billion per year, will be a building block for the design and subsequent implementation of national climate plans that need to be delivered by 2025.
• Looking ahead to the transitions to decarbonized economies and societies that lie ahead, there was agreement that the mitigation work programme, which was launched at COP27 last year, will continue until 2030, with at least two global dialogues held each year.

Event participation and inclusivity

• World leaders at COP28 were joined by civil society, business, Indigenous Peoples, youth, philanthropy, and international organizations in a spirit of shared determinationto close the gaps to 2030. Some 85,000 participants attended COP28 to share ideas, solutions, and build partnerships and coalitions.
• The decisions taken here today also reemphasize the critical importance of empowering all stakeholders to engage in climate action; in particular through the action plan on Action for Climate Empowerment and the Gender Action Plan.

Strengthening collaboration between governments and key stakeholders

• In parallel with the formal negotiations, the Global Climate Action space at COP28 provided a platform for governments, businesses and civil society to collaborate and showcase their real-world climate solutions.
• The High-Level Champions, under the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action, launched their implementation roadmap of 2030 Climate Solutions. These are a set of solutions, with insights from a wide range of non-Party stakeholders on effective measures that need to be scaled up and replicated to halve global emissions, address adaptation gaps and increase resilience by 2030.
• The conference also saw several announcements to boost the resilience of food and public health systems, and to reduce emissions related to agriculture and methane.

Significance

• The negotiations on the ‘enhanced transparency framework’ at COP28 laid the ground for a new era of implementing the Paris Agreement.

Global Expert Review on Debt, Nature and Climate

 At the 28th Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 28), leaders from Kenya, Colombia and France launched the Global Expert Review on Debt, Nature and Climate.

• Kenya, Colombia and France have teamed up and launched a team of international experts to review financial architecture.
• The experts will review debt, climate and nature.
• The review is a follow-through of part of the Paris Pact for People and Planet agreed at the Summit for a New Global Financing Pact in Paris.
• An international independent expert group will carry out the review, fitted with its own secretariat.

Rationale

• Over the past decade and a half, the debt crisis for the world’s poorest nations has spiralled, often forcing them to step up extraction of their natural resources, which again accelerates nature and biodiversity loss and reduces their ability to sequester carbon.
• There is a need for financial institutions to be responsive to challenges facing the world and that everybody requires access to capital and financing to address the realities of climate change.

Mandate

• The three countries will aim to identify potential reforms to improve poor countries’ ability to finance efforts to protect and restore nature as to mitigate, as well as adapt, to climate change.
• The expert review will examine necessary reforms, at the national and international levels, to ensure the debt sustainability of developing countries as they seek to increase investment to achieve a climate-resilient, low-carbon, and nature-positive structural economic transformation that also allows for greater economic and social development.

Methodology

• The global expert review will conduct a comprehensive assessment of how sovereign debt impacts the ability of developing countries to conserve nature, to adapt to climate change, to decarbonise their economies, and how it can become more sustainable, both fiscally and environmentally.

Analysis on Climate Funding

Closing the climate funding gap

• According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), developing economies will need an annual $2.4 trillion(£1.9tn) of investment in climate action in the coming years. But wealthier nations have so far been slow to deliver on financial pledges to help poorer nations adapt to a hotter world. The new "loss and damage" fund announced at this year''s COP28 launched with $400m (£318m) from rich nations. But developing nations stand to lose 1,000 times that much each year to climate change, by one estimate.
• This money could fund projects that bolster natural defences, such as restoring mangroves to help protect against floods, or reforming agriculture to improve food system resilience.  
• Yet many nations are also not in a position to finance the above shifts. Loans can help – and in 2020 71% of public climate financewas provided this way – but last year more than 50 developing countries were already in severe debt. Some nations are currently paying their creditors more than 12 times what they spend on climate measures.
• Much of today''s economic vulnerability is also being caused by exogeneous shocks, not by poor macro management, explains Vera Swonge, co-chair of UN''s independent high level group on climate finance. From Covid-19 to the war in Ukraine, to climate disasters, recent global events have slowed economic growth and pushed up interest rates. The result is that many poorer nations'' debt burdens are skyrocketing, through no fault of their own. "We can''t fix the climate issue unless we fix the debt issue," as the president of Kenyarecently summed it up.
• One way for indebted nations to respond to debt crises is by boosting exports of primary resources like fuel, forests or fish – but keeping these assets intact is now key to capturing carbonand saving biodiversity. Equally, debt can''t be fixed without climate action either, for when climate-linked disasters strike, economies are further strained. Twenty-eight of the most severely indebted nations are already among the most climate-vulnerable.
• Urgent debt relief is thus needed "to avert a deepening development crisis," the UN Development Programme(UNDP) has warned.

Indian Forest & Wood Certification Scheme

 The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change has launched the Indian Forest & Wood Certification Scheme.

Voluntary Third-Party Certification

• This national forest certification scheme offers voluntary third-party certification designed to promote sustainable forest management and agroforestry in the country.
• The scheme includes forest management certification, tree outside forest management certification, and chain of custody certification.

Market Incentives

• The Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme can provide market incentives to various entities that adhere to responsible forest management and agroforestry practices in their operations.
• This includes state forest departments, individual farmers, or Farmer Producer Organizations engaged in agroforestry and farm forestry, as well as other wood-based industries in the value chain.

Basis of Certification

• The Forest Management certification is based on the Indian Forest Management Standard, consisting of 8 criteria, 69 indicators and 254 verifiers, which is an integral part of the National Working Plan Code 2023, launched earlier this year.
• A separate Trees Outside Forests Standard, is now introduced as a part of the newly launched Indian Forest & Wood Certification Scheme.

Advisory Body

• The Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme, will be overseen by the Indian Forest and Wood Certification Council, which will act as a multistakeholder advisory body.
• The Council is represented by members from eminent institutions such as Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Forest Survey of India, Quality Council of India, Indian Institute of Forest Management including representatives from the Ministries of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare and Ministry of Commerce and Industry, State Forest Departments, Forest Development Corporations, and representatives from wood-based industries.

Scheme Operating Agency

• Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal will act as the scheme operating agency and will be responsible for overall management of the Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme.

Accreditation

• The National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies under the Quality Council of India will accredit the certification bodies which will carry out independent audits and assess adherence of various entities on the standards prescribed under the scheme.

Cinereous Vulture

• The cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) has been sighted at the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.

ASOLA BHATTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY: 

Cinereous Vulture

• The cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) belongs to the family Accipitridae.
• These cinereous vulture species are distributed in Europe, Asia and Indian Subcontinent.

Description

• The cinereous vulture is a large bird, measuring 100 to 110 cm in length and weighing 7,000 to 12,500 grams.
• The wingspan is 250 to 300 cm. The whole body is dark brown, except the head covered with brown down.
• The bare skin in the head and neck is bluish grey. The adult has brown eyes and a purplish cere.
• The bill is massive and is blue-gray in color. The legs are pale blue-gray.
• Their sounds and calls include grunts, croaks and hisses when feeding at carcasses.

Habitat

• The cinereous vultures inhabit hilly, mountainous areas, dry semi-open habitats such as meadows at high altitudes, steppe, grasslands and open woodlands.

Feeding habits

• These cinereous vulture species feed on carcasses of medium sized and large mammals.
• They may occasionally takes live prey. They soar high on the thermals to locate dead animals.

Breeding

• These cinereous vulture species breed during February and March. They breed in loose colonies in trees and cliff ledges.
• The nest is built with sticks and twigs. The egg clutch typically only a single egg.
• Both the parents take part in the rearing of the chick.

Distribution

• The cinereous vulture is distributed in France, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Saudi Arabia, Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan, north India, northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Mongolia, China, North Korea and South Korea.

Movement Patterns

• The adult cinereous vulture populations in the Europe are mostly sedentary.
• The populations in temperate Asia migrate southwards for wintering.

Threats

• Shooting, poisoning, use of veterinary diclofenac (anti-inflammatory drug), decrease in food availability and habitat loss are the main threats in the conservation of these species.

Status and conservation

• The cinereous vulture global population is estimated to number 21,000 to 30,000 individual birds.
• There is slight increase in European population.
• There is decline in the Asian population.
• The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) has categorized and evaluated these vulture species and has listed them as "Near Threatened".