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Mar 26, 2022
YETTINAHOLE WATER PROJECT: NOT A DROP AT END OF THE PIPELINE AFTER SPENDING RS 22,000 CRORE
Recently, a portion of the Western Ghats at Habbanahalli village in Karnataka’s Hassan district collapsed, damaging pipelines and a tunnel laid for the Yettinahole water project.
About Yettinahole Water Project
About Space Based Solar Power
What is Wave Energy?
About Bhoomi Rashi Portal
Key Findings
About National Smart Grid Mission
About Pacer Initiative
Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER) scheme comprising the Antarctic program, Indian Arctic program, Southern Ocean program and Cryosphere and Climate program is implemented successfully through National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
Vision
To excel as a knowledge and technology enterprise in the earth system science realm towards socio-economic benefit of society.
Mission
To provide services for weather, climate, ocean and coastal state, hydrology, seismology and natural hazards; to explore and harness marine living and non-living resources in a sustainable manner and to explore the three poles of the Earth (Arctic, Antarctic and Himalayas).
Functions
About Yettinahole Water Project
- The Yettinahole water diversion project, commissioned in 2012 seeks to feed water to Kolar and Chikkaballapur.
- The Yettinahole diversion project is being planned by KNNL as a drinking water supply scheme.
- The original DPR envisaged feeding water to industries in Bengaluru and some parts of Tumakuru district
- The project involves damming or building weirs across the tributaries of Kempu Hole also known as Yettinahole and Gundia Hole
- A 280 km long pipeline will be laid as part of the project, from the main dam near Sakleshpur and Chikkaballapur
- The Yettinahole project also plans to lay several hundreds of miles of pipeline to feed water bodies in Kolar, Tumakuru and Bengaluru rural
- By the time the project is finished (an estimated three years' time) the implementation cost may escalate
- Hongadahalla, Kiri Hole, Kadumane Hole and Ettinahole are the main tributaries of Kempu Hole
- The government-owned corporation aims to fill up 725 tanks in five districts with 24 thousand million cubic feet (tmc) water lifted from the depths of the Western Ghats at Yettinahole to the ridgeline of the Shirady ghat at Sakleshpur.
- The water will then be pumped into a pipeline that stretches 873 kilometers, denuding 600 acres of forests.
- A large precipice was created during construction of the tunnel that was damaged. This was an engineering failure, said MG Hegde, leader of the Save Netravathi River movement. The precipice has a large mass of loose earth precariously perched, has no barrier and can collapse any moment.
- The scheme involves eight dams in the Western Ghat forests, a reservoir that will submerge 1,200 hectares of land and two villages, and will require 370 megawatts of electricity to pump the water.
- The project, which will transfer water from Netravathi basin to Hemavathi basin over the Western Ghats, will have far-reaching consequences. The sweet water dumping into the Arabian sea is expected to come down by 30 per cent once the project becomes functional.
- This is the first major inter-basin river water transfer of Karnataka that has come up in the highly eco-sensitive western ghats. The project was initially called the Netravathi River diversion project but was later renamed Yettinahole stormwater lift project.
- The government has spent Rs 22,000 crore for lifting water from Dakshina Kannada district and supplying it to Chikkaballapura district about 220 kilometers away.
- 1972: GS Paramashivaiah submitted a report to the government on the Netravati River Diversion project which involved diverting rivers and streams from four Malnad districts to feed water to Tumakuru, Kolar and Chikkaballapur
- As the proposed project was opposed by ecologists and also some of the project suggestions were not possible to implement, the government decided to go ahead with a part of the original project
- 2012: The government claimed that as the project is for drinking water purposes, it does not require permission from the Environment Ministry
- 2013: Work begins on eight dams and pumping stations in Sakleshpur
- 2014: A petition is filed before the National Green Tribunal at Chennai
- 2017: The case is transferred to New Delhi Principal Bench of the Tribunal
- 2019: On May 24, Tribunal rejects the petition and gives a go-ahead
- Yettinahole River Diversion project aims to divert water from four perennial streams of River Nethravati in the Western Ghats of Karnataka towards drought-hit districts in Karnataka.
- Compensation was an immediate concern as the guidance value on which land acquisition would be based was just one-twelfth of the market rate.
- Besides this, 527 tanks will be filled using 8.96 tmcft of water in these districts so as to help recharge groundwater. In Kolar, Tumakuru, Chickballapur, and Bengaluru Rural, groundwater levels have dipped alarmingly to 1,000 to 1,400 feet. Groundwater sources here is contaminated by fluoride, nitrate, and harmful salts.
- Before initiating the project, the government had come to a conclusion that the west-flowing rivers were the only viable and sustainable source so as to minimise the impact on the environment. Water would be tapped from the west-flowing rivers for the project only during the rainy season — June to November.
- The situation has created a humanitarian crisis, as many tribal families who live near the unstable area are in the fear of losing their houses, small patches of farms and, most importantly, their lives and livestock.
- A dynamite used during construction damaged the walls of over 100 residences in Hebbanahalli and Mugali village, cracking the walls of the school buildings. Almost every home is unsafe to live in.
- People there consider this as a a money-making project.
- As many as 43 Gram Panchayats in Belthangady, Uppinangady and Shirady have passed a resolution to deny permission to laying of pipeline or any other civil works connected to the project.
- Many other panchayats on the banks of the river Netravathi in Buntwal and Mangaluru taluks are now contemplating officially joining the struggle through passing anti project resolutions. If the government goes against the panchayat resolutions it will be a violation of the Panchayat Raj act.
- Activists point out that there could be more disaster waiting in the Ghats of Hassan district and adjoining areas and are questioning the sharing of Yettinahole water, which they allege will be used for industrial purposes in Bengaluru and for agriculture in more than three districts.
- The money involved in the project execution is another factor which has run into controversy ever since the project was implemented. The total cost of the project was estimated at Rs 13,700 crore in 2012 which is likely to escalate in the coming days.
- The project has already caused a big dent to the green cover in the Ghats and pipeline laying has also destroyed several patches of green cover in the region. The mud that has been extracted from the work site will now go and sit under river beds when the rain begins.
- Activists say that the monsoons are likely to result in widespread damage as excavated mud enters streams.
- The project required prior forest clearance from the Centre since it involves diversion of forest land. As per the Karnataka Forest Department (KFD), the area where the project is proposed is “evergreen and semi-evergreen forest of the Western Ghats with unique flora and fauna and rich biological diversity.
- The area is also an elephant habitat with frequent movement of elephants.
- Neither did the project undertake an Environmental Impact Assessment and the mandatory cost-benefit analysis (which would show whether the benefits outweigh the environmental costs), nor did it consider alternatives to the project, it was recommended for approval.
- The State government has overcome all hurdles by allaying fears of environmentalists and people in the coastal areas and taken up work on the project. Fabrication of the pipeline required for the project is in the advanced stage of completion.
About Space Based Solar Power
- Space-based solar power (SBSP, SSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in outer space by solar power satellites (SPS) and distributing it to Earth. Sunlight is brighter outside the atmosphere, and can shine all day.
- Space-based solar power systems convert sunlight to some other form of energy (such as microwaves) which can be transmitted through the atmosphere to receivers on the Earth's surface. It is attractive to those seeking large-scale solutions to anthropogenic climate change or fossil fuel depletion
- Space-based solar power involves collecting solar energy in space and transferring it to Earth. While the idea itself is not new, recent technological advances have made this prospect more achievable.
- The space-based solar power system involves a solar power satellite – an enormous spacecraft equipped with solar panels. These panels generate electricity, which is then wirelessly transmitted to Earth through high-frequency radio waves. A ground antenna, called a rectenna, is used to convert the radio waves into electricity, which is then delivered to the power grid.
- A space-based solar power station in orbit is illuminated by the Sun 24 hours a day and could therefore generate electricity continuously. This represents an advantage over terrestrial solar power systems (systems on Earth), which can produce electricity only during the day and depend on the weather.
- With global energy demand projected to increase by nearly 50% by 2050, space-based solar power could be key to helping meet the growing demand on the world’s energy sector and tackling global temperature rise.
- The Space Solar Power Project in the US is developing high-efficiency solar cells as well as a conversion and transmission system optimised for use in space. The US Naval Research Laboratory tested a solar module and power conversion system in space in 2020. Meanwhile, China has announced progress on their Bishan space solar energy station, with the aim to have a functioning system by 2035.
- In the UK, a £17 billion space-based solar power development is deemed to be a viable concept based on the recent Frazer-Nash Consultancy report. The project is expected to start with small trials, leading to an operational solar power station in 2040.
- The solar power satellite would be 1.7km in diameter, weighing around 2,000 tonnes. The terrestrial antenna takes up a lot of space – roughly 6.7km by 13km. Given the use of land across the UK, it’s more likely to be placed offshore.
- This satellite would deliver 2GW of power to the UK. While this is a substantial amount of power, it is a small contribution to the UK’s generation capacity, which is around 76GW.
- With extremely high initial costs and a slow return on investment, the project would need substantial governmental resources as well as investments from private companies.
- But as technology advances, the cost of space launch and manufacturing will steadily decrease. And the scale of the project will allow for mass manufacturing, which should drive the cost down somewhat.
- The world’s energy consumption is only growing. According to a report by the University of Oxford’s Our World in Data, on the global primary energy consumption, the current world consumption is over 160,000 TWh annually. Solar energy contributes only 585 TWh.
- Although there is an increase in renewable energy solutions, investments, and usage, oil, coal, and gas still generate more than 80% of the global energy that is consumed - with solar energy generating less than 1%.
- Between 2004 and 2015, investments in renewable energy increased by 600% from £36.2 billion (US$46.7 billion) to £220.6 billion (US$284.8 billion).
- Current predictions indicate that the world population will reach 9.7 billion by 2050. With the increase in population, the world energy consumption is also predicted to grow by 50% by 2050.
- In addition, climate change impacts are accelerating. Although we generate a big percentage of the world's energy from fossil fuels, fossil fuels contribute significantly to the increase of climate change.
- Comparatively, solar energy is the safest source of energy today - though it still only contributes a small percentage of global energy production. The death rates from solar production are 1,230 times lower than coal, and it has one of the lowest CO2 emissions, at 5g CO2 Sq per kWh.
- Space-based solar power has several benefits; unlike solar panels on our roofs that can only generate electricity during the day, space-based solar power can generate continuous electricity, 24 hours a day, 99% of the year.
- This is because, unlike Earth, the space environment does not have night and day, and the satellites are in the Earth's shadow for only a maximum of 72 minutes per night.
- Space-based solar panels can generate 2,000 gigawatts of power constantly. This is 40 times more energy than a solar panel would generate on Earth annually. This is also several folds higher than the efficiency of solar panels today.
- What’s more, is that space-based solar power would generate 0% greenhouse gas emissions unlike other alternatives energy like nuclear, coal, oil, gas, and ethanol. The current source of energy that generates the lowest CO2 is nuclear power, which generates CO2 of 5g CO2 eq per kWh.
- Space-based solar power generates almost 0% hazardous waste to our environment compared to nuclear power.
- While space-based solar power is an innovative concept, we are not able to fully launch a system into space yet. Launching a space-based solar system is very expensive. In fact, the cost is estimated to be about 100 times too high to compete with current utility costs.
- One of the causes of the high costs is the high cost of launching the panels to space, which is mostly due to the high mass per watt generated by the current solar panels. In other words, the solar panels are currently too heavy per watt generated to make it feasible.
- Currently, the cost of launching in space is estimated to be £7,716 per kilogram - approximately £154 per watt. In comparison to the cost that homeowners pay today, which is approximately £2 per watt peak, the cost in space is extremely high to be competitive. In UK homes, the installation cost of solar panels can be as low as £1.5 per watt.
- Other reasons for high costs include the overall high transport costs to space. This is because transporting all other materials that are needed to space would require many spaces shuttle launches, and these space shuttles are currently not reusable. So, not only is the launch of solar panels themselves expensive, but the additional materials needing to be transported is also expensive.
- A lot of research and engineering is still ongoing to find the most feasible way to launch space-based solar panels and launch systems, at a lower cost.
- The environment out in space also has several hazards that could cause damage to the solar panels. These include space debris and extreme solar radiation, which could degrade the solar panels up to 8 times faster than panels installed on Earth.
- Finally, there is a potential of wasting large amounts of energy when transporting or during transmission from space to Earth. Therefore, scientists and engineers must continue their R&D efforts to ensure little to no energy is lost during the process.
- The key players in SBSP include China, the US, and Japan, who have shown progress in terms of technology advancements, partnerships, and launch plans.
- China is already progressing to launch into space. The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation plans to launch small to medium solar satellites in the stratosphere that can harness energy in space between 2021 and 2025.
- China also plans to generate one megawatt of energy from space-based solar panels by 2030, and to be operating a commercially viable solar space station by 2050.
- In the US, there are ongoing partnerships and investments. For example, a $100 million partnership between Northrop Grumman and U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory has been established to provide advanced technology for SBSP.
- Also in the US, a $17.5 million collaboration between Northrop Grumman Corporation and Caltech was set up to develop the space solar power project called ‘The Space Solar Power Initiative’. The initiative’s goal was to develop scientific and technological innovations that would enable a space-based solar power system to generate electricity at a cost comparable to current sources of electricity.
- There has been ongoing research and technological advancements. In the US, the development of the SPS-ALPHA Mark-II concept is underway. This, if successful, would enable construction of huge platforms in space that can remotely deliver tens of thousands of megawatts of electricity to Earth, using wireless power transmissions. This will also enable delivery of affordable power to Earth and on space missions.
- In addition, progress is being made to build reusable launch systems. Success in this will lower the cost of transport to space and the overall cost of space-based solar power. An example is SpaceX, that is currently working on reusable launch vehicles that can be used for transport to space.
- In Japan, researchers successfully transmitted electric power wirelessly using microwaves. Researchers transformed 1.8 kW of electric power into microwaves and accurately transmitted it into a receiver that was 55 metres away. This was a technological advancement towards bringing SBSP closer to reality. Japan also made space-based solar systems part of its future space exploration vision.
- A possible way around this would be to generate solar energy in space. There are many advantages to this. A space-based solar power station could orbit to face the Sun 24 hours a day. The Earth’s atmosphere also absorbs and reflects some of the Sun’s light, so solar cells above the atmosphere will receive more sunlight and produce more energy.
- It is always solar noon in space and full sun.
- Collecting surfaces could receive much more intense sunlight, owing to the lack of obstructions such as atmospheric gases, clouds, dust and other weather events. Consequently, the intensity in orbit is approximately 144% of the maximum attainable intensity on Earth's surface.
- A satellite could be illuminated over 99% of the time, and be in Earth's shadow a maximum of only 72 minutes per night at the spring and fall equinoxes at local midnight. Orbiting satellites can be exposed to a consistently high degree of solar radiation, generally for 24 hours per day, whereas earth surface solar panels currently collect power for an average of 29% of the day.
- Power could be redirected relatively quickly directly to areas that need it most. A collecting satellite could possibly direct power on demand to different surface locations based on geographical baseload or peak load power needs.
- Reduced plant and wildlife interference.
- A space-based solar power station is based on a modular design, where a large number of solar modules are assembled by robots in orbit. Transporting all these elements into space is difficult, costly, and will take a toll on the environment.
- The weight of solar panels was identified as an early challenge. But this has been addressed through the development of ultra-light solar cells (a solar panel comprises smaller solar cells).
- Space-based solar power is deemed to be technically feasible primarily because of advances in key technologies, including lightweight solar cells, wireless power transmission and space robotics.
- Importantly, assembling even just one space-based solar power station will require many spaces shuttle launches. Although space-based solar power is designed to reduce carbon emissions in the long run, there are significant emissions associated with space launches, as well as costs.
- Space shuttles are not currently reusable, though companies like Space X are working on changing this. Being able to reuse launch systems would significantly reduce the overall cost of space-based solar power.
- If we manage to successfully build a space-based solar power station, its operation faces several practical challenges, too. Solar panels could be damaged by space debris. Further, panels in space are not shielded by Earth’s atmosphere.
- Being exposed to more intense solar radiation means they will degrade faster than those on Earth, which will reduce the power they are able to generate.
- The efficiency of wireless power transmission is another issue. Transmitting energy across large distances – in this case from a solar satellite in space to the ground – is difficult. Based on the current technology, only a small fraction of collected solar energy would reach the Earth.
- Space debris is a major hazard to large objects in space, particularly for large structures such as SBSP systems in transit through the debris below 2000 km. Collision risk is much reduced in GEO since all the satellites are moving in the same direction at very close to the same speed.
- Energy losses during several phases of conversion from photons to electrons to photons back to electrons.
- Waste heat disposal in space power systems is difficult to begin with, but becomes intractable when the entire spacecraft is designed to absorb as much solar radiation as possible. Traditional spacecraft thermal control systems such as radiative vanes may interfere with solar panel occlusion or power transmitters.
- Fossil fuels are finite and can eventually run out. According to predictions, oil and natural gas could run out in 50 years and coal production in 115 years. With ongoing research and investments, there is a high possibility that space-based solar power is the viable future of solar power.
- If the cost of space-based solar power can be lowered, it is likely to be a major source of sustainable energy that cannot diminish. Major players like China, who already have timelines of implementing the technology in space, may be able to provide some key learnings for future improvements in the technology.
- Whether space-based solar power can help us meet net zero by 2050 remains to be seen. Other technologies, like diverse and flexible energy storage, hydrogen and growth in renewable energy systems are better understood and can be more readily applied.
- Despite the challenges, space-based solar power is a precursor for exciting research and development opportunities. In the future, technology is likely to play an important role in the global energy supply.
What is Wave Energy?
- Waves are formed when wind blows over the surface of water. Devices called wave energy converters capture the energy from waves and turn it into electricity.
- Different approaches are used. Some devices sit beneath the water’s surface while others are anchored to the ocean floor. Another technique is to push the waves through a narrow channel, where they power a turbine.
- Waves have the highest energy density of renewable energy sources, compared to others like wind, solar, biomass and geothermal. This means waves have the greatest potential to be an important contributor to the world’s “energy mix resilience”, say researchers at the University of Plymouth.
- There are many ways of classifying the various types of technology used to convert wave energy to electricity. For simplicity, they can be divided into three main types: oscillating water columns, oscillating bodies and overtopping convertors.
- Oscillating water columns use wave surges to drive a stream of trapped air through an air turbine. These devices are essentially large hollow columns half submerged in the ocean, with an underwater vent open to the sea. The movement of waves pushes water into the chamber, forcing air through the column. As waves recede, air is sucked back through the column in the other direction.
- The movement of air rotates a turbine in the column, which rapidly turns into a generator to produce electricity. The turbines in oscillating water columns are specially designed to turn in the same direction irrespective of the direction of the air movement, which takes advantage of the back-and-forth movement of air.
- Oscillating bodies use floating buoys or platforms that rise and fall with the swell. There is not one standard for this type of technology, and they appear in many forms.
- The most common oscillating bodies are called point absorber buoys. They are fixed to the sea floor via a hydraulic pump. The buoy moves up and down along ocean swell crests and troughs, activating the hydraulic pump which pushes water or air through a turbine, which in turn rotates a generator to produce electricity.
- Another commonly used wave power generator is a surface attenuator. This is a series of long floating cylindrical sections, connected by hinges, that are arranged perpendicular to oncoming waves. As the wave passes along the attenuator, the cylindrical sections move up and down in relation to each other. This causes hydraulic pumps at the hinges to ‘pinch’, pumping high pressure fluid to rotate a generator and produce electricity.
- Overtopping converters allow swell to deliver water over the top of a structure that captures it higher than the sea level, and then releases the water to drive a hydro-electric turbine, similar to a hydro-electric dam.
- Ocean swells that would normally crash against the shore or a cliff are instead directed up a ramp to a water tank approximately 3-5 metres above sea level. The water is then released, through a turbine, back to sea level.
- Modern wave power did not emerge until the 1970s, when the world experienced a significant oil crisis. This droves many nations to explore alternatives to oil to reduce dependency on diminishing and fluctuating resources. Despite high interest and investment in the 1970s, funding for wave power dropped as oil prices returned to normal levels.
- However, research is ongoing and several countries with coastlines, including Australia, Canada, the USA, the UK, Ireland and some European countries are leading the development of wave energy technologies.
- There are several other ways that we can take advantage of the dynamic and chemical properties of the ocean, although these technologies are at a very early stage of development. For example, marine current power harnesses the kinetic energy of the currents of the world’s oceans, such as the Gulf Stream.
- Another example of a growing field of research is osmotic power, which harnesses the differences in salt concentration between bodies of fresh water, such as rivers, and the salty ocean.
- Finally, ocean thermal power uses the differences in temperature in different parts of the ocean to generate electricity.
- Many countries are developing ocean energy systems. Policies are being introduced to encourage this.
- For example, in Australia, the government approved a national Offshore Electricity Infrastructure Bill in 2021. This provides a policy framework for building and operating offshore electricity projects.
- In the European Union, islands are expected to play a key role in developing ocean energy technologies as part of an Offshore Renewable Energy Strategy.
- In the UK, wave energy was first developed in the 1970s and there are active wave energy projects in Scotland, England and Wales. Wave Energy Scotland, a national technology development body backed by the Scottish government, has invested more than $52 million (£40 million) in almost 100 projects since it was set up in 2014.
- In Sweden, wave energy company CorPower Ocean says it has built the world’s largest wave energy test rig at its base in Stockholm.
- Lots of niche applications for wave energy are helping to pave the way for larger utility-scale projects. These include using wave energy to power oil and gas platforms, marine farming, remote islands, naval bases, oceanography services and luxury resorts.
- India has a long coastline of 7517 km marked along by numerous estuaries and gulfs which makes it attractive for the development of marine energy projects. India's wave power potential is around 40-60GW.
- However, compared to the developments in other renewable energy technologies, ocean energy technologies like wave and tidal are in their nascent stages of development in India.
- The Ministry of Earth Sciences in Government of India oversees the development of wave energy in India with National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai (NIOT) being a participating institution.
- The ministry envisions development of wave energy to power low-temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) plants and to meet the lighting requirements of small islands.
- India's government has set a target of achieving 40% cumulative electrical power capacity from non-fossil fuel resources by 2030.
- It plans to enhance the renewable power installed capacity to 175 GW by the end of 2022 which includes 60 GW from wind power, 100 GW from solar power, 10 GW from biomass power and 5 GW from small hydropower. There is however no specific target for wave power capacity enhancement.
- Renewable: Wave energy uses the natural dynamics of the abundant ocean, and does not use any non-renewable fuels to generate electricity.
- Clean: It does not produce greenhouse gases or other pollution while operating, and reduces reliance on fossil fuels. There are no waste products created by ocean power generation.
- Abundant: As wave and tidal power generators are built along coastlines, there is huge potential, particularly in countries that have long coastlines.
- Low running costs: Once an ocean energy plant starts operating, it’s anticipated that its running costs are quite low, especially compared to more dominant forms of power generation such as oil and coal plants, as well as nuclear power.
- Less visibly intrusive: As most ocean power technologies are either underwater or have a low profile above the water, there is little criticism with respect to the aesthetics of wave and tidal power generation which wind, solar and other land-based technologies are subject to.
- Creation of green jobs: Communities living in remote areas and declining industries like the shipbuilding industry bear the biggest brunt of unemployment and economic unsustainability due to lack of electricity.
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- The wave energy sector has the potential to create numerous green opportunities for remote and urban populations alike because remote areas that are not able to be reached by conventional electricity supply are well catered by wave power.
- The exponential growth of remote areas: The wave energy harnessed can to channelled to remote locations, and this means springing up of industries and businesses. These remote areas will witness strong economic growth moving forward.
- Security of energy supply: Setting up a strong wave energy infrastructure can enormously help a country from overdependence on fossil fuels. The fossil fuel market is largely volatile and could hurt a country’s economy if a shortage occurs. Wave energy is the sure-fire way to bridge this volatility gap since it’s cheap, reliable and efficient.
- Land remains undamaged: Wave energy plants can be situated offshore alleviating any risk that comes along with these plants situated onshore like soil pollution. Also, the land remains in its natural state unlike fossil fuel extraction, which requires high levels of excavation that leaves land heavily damaged.
- The challenge is that wave energy is far behind in its development compared to other renewable energies.
- The plants rely on coastal locations, they may not be able to support whole populations.
- Effects on marine life: Cables, turbines and other infrastructure could potentially harm marine life. Marine life may be affected by ocean power technology, particularly through turbine blade strike; however, studies are still determining how often this happens in reality. Tidal barrages can change the salt content, or salinity, of water in enclosed bays and rivers, which can have detrimental effects on marine plants and animals
- Expensive to build: Although Ocean power plants and devices are cheap to run, they often involve high costs to research and construct. Investors can be reluctant to fund such projects as many don’t see a return for years.
- Weather effects: Storms and hurricanes can damage ocean power technology, particularly those anchored to the sea floor, which can increase maintenance and repair bills significantly.
- Disadvantage of location: The downside to wave energy is the location. Individuals or towns in proximity to oceans and seas will enjoy the fruits of wave energy. Because the source of wave energy is restricted to oceans and seas, it can’t be relied upon to serve the entire population of a country. This means that towns, cities, and countries not close to such water bodies don’t get to enjoy the fruits of wave energy.
- Environmental concerns: Although wave energy is a clean energy source, the sound produced by the plant generators could prove unbearable to some local residents. The plants also interfere with the natural aesthetic look of the ocean. However, the noise of the waves, on most occasions, equalizes the noise produced by the generators.
- Fossil fuel shortages are heightening the need for renewable alternatives like wave energy.
- A combination of factors is pushing prices for oil, gas and coal higher, leading to a global energy crisis. The world’s recovery from COVID-19 has fuelled demand for energy, but supplies have faltered.
- Lower coal production in China, low investment in oil production in the US and declining gas production in Europe are among the causes. There have also been global transport bottlenecks.
- Now the conflict in Ukraine is pushing oil prices to new highs over supply disruption fears.
- Against this backdrop, the reliability of wave energy is a big attraction. While wind and solar energy are unpredictable, waves are reliably frequent and harbour more energy than other renewables.
- But while the potential is there for wave energy to solve the energy crisis, there are inevitably hurdles along the way.
- Ocean power is not currently on track to play its part in helping the world reach carbon neutrality by 2050, the International Energy Agency (IEA) says in its Ocean Power tracking report.
- To achieve this goal, ocean power generation needs to grow an average of 33% a year between 2020 and 2030.
- Marine technologies hold great potential, but additional policy support for energy research, development and demonstration is needed.
About Bhoomi Rashi Portal
- The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India has designed Bhoomi Rashi as a single point platform for online processing of land acquisition notifications to accelerate highway infrastructure development projects in India.
- Bhoomi Rashi will fast track the process of land acquisition and result in greater benefits for all stakeholders. Farmers, landowners, contractors and investors will benefit from the transparency introduced by the portal in the land acquisition process.
- The Bhoomi Rashi portal will be a new milestone in the nation’s journey towards Digitisation and Transparency.
- MoRTH decided to develop an online Land Acquisition (LA) system which would provide linkage across authorities, eliminate the need of physical copy, reduce the formatting errors/clerical mistakes and enable easy tracking of the draft notification.
- The Land Acquisition process involves several stakeholders, including State PWDs who prepare the DPRs on the basis of which the land is acquired, state revenue officials who carry out the actual land acquisition, Project zones of the Ministry which obtain approval of the Minister (Competent authority) and Land Acquisition notifications.
- Extensive stakeholder consultations were held over a period of 12 months, culminating in the final design of the utility, titled ‘Bhoomi Rashi’.
- Training/orientation sessions were organized over a period of 6 months in each state with officers who would actually be using the portal for submitting draft notifications, and their suggestions were also incorporated in the user interface and experience design of the portal.
- Bilingual application with Hindi and English for easy usability
- Preparation of interface for adding project basic details including LA sanction details.
- Preparation of interface for Land Acquisition locations i.e. villages
- Preparation of Interface for CALA details
- Interface for generating LA notification
- Interface for generation of 3a, 3A & 3D notification: organizational email IDS for all those involved in the process flow to ensure smooth e-office management
- Interface for Objections and processing
- Interface for compensation determination and finalization
- Generation of web service for getting payment status and beneficiary validation from PFMS
- Interface for Land owners and affected parties
- With regard to 711 districts and 6,55,297 villages data has been incorporated and will be updated from time to time by the admin:
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- States: All states of India (E Gov Standards Master Data)
- Districts: Under each state, details of districts of India (E Gov Standards Master Data)
- Sub Districts/Tehsil/Taluka: Under each district, details of sub districts (E Gov Standards Master Data)
- Villages: Under each Sub District, details of villages (E Gov Standards Master Data)
- All Regional offices of MoRTH, NHAI & NHIDCL with login credentials for RO user with DDO Code
- The system is completely secure with OTP based security being provided at each level.
- Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) is engaged in developing India’s road infrastructure sector and executes its projects through various implementation agencies, viz. National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), National Highways & Infrastructure Development Company Ltd. (NHIDCL) and State PWDs.
- The objective of the Ministry is to fast-track economic growth, for which improved road connectivity, specifically expansion and upgradation of the National Highways network, is of vital importance.
- Land Acquisition is critical for the commencement and completion of construction of National Highways, which begins once the alignment plan and land acquisition plan for a specific project are approved.
- The process starts with the appointment of a revenue functionary of the State Government as Competent Authority for Land Acquisition (CALA) for each NH Project.
- It ends at taking physical possession of the land by the implementing authority and disbursal of compensation to each affected/interested party.
- The critical aspect of a National Highway construction/upgradation project is the timely availability of land. In many cases, it had become a major bottleneck on account of slow procedures and delay in issuance of notifications.
- The entire land acquisition process was time consuming and lacked transparency earlier, leading to unforeseen delays. It involved drafting and publication of multiple notifications, each of which would pass through several authorities for processing/approval before its final publication. The processing of these notifications manually was time-consuming and prone to errors.
- Further, the funds out of which compensation was to be paid for land acquired under the National Highways Act 1956, were placed solely at the disposal of the Competent Authority for Land Acquisition (CALA). For NHAI projects and National Highways Interconnectivity Improvement Projects (NHIIP), these funds were placed in a joint account held in the name of CALA and Project Director (PD). Funds were disbursed by CALA after declaration and finalization of land acquisition awards.
- Since Land Acquisition involves huge amounts of Compensation and the whole process takes place over a prolonged period, these funds were unnecessarily parked in CALA’s account for a long time, thereby, resulting in delays in projects.
- Bottlenecks in Manual Procedure of Land Acquisition
- Parking huge Government funds with CALAs
- Mismatch or Errors in entries like Survey Numbers, Village Name, name of CALA etc.
- Physical movement/processing of draft Notifications for their publication in the Gazette of India-Extra Ordinary, resulting in delay
- Multiple Entries of Land Parties by CALA at every subsequent stage
- Non transparency in determination and disbursal of compensation
- Bhoomi Rashi was made operational on 1st April 2018. Up till August 2018, 850 LA proposals have been processed through the portal.
- The portal has the potential to open new opportunities, and enhance efficiency in the LA process. Earlier, physical processing of the cases usually took weeks to even months. Now, the portal has reduced the processing time to a few days, around 2 weeks for the majority of the cases.
- Bhoomi Rashi is now integrated with the Public Financial Management System (PFMS) platform of the Ministry of Finance, for deposition of compensation in the account of affected/interested person, on real-time basis. The first set of actual payments in this regard have been successfully made through PFMS for a NH Project in the State of Rajasthan.
- The need of the hour was workflow-based automation of the present Land Acquisition process for NH projects. Development and operationalization of a comprehensive web-based portal was the answer.
- This portal would enhance the efficiency of the land acquisition process, ensure transparency and accountability, and result in e-transfer of benefits directly to the accounts of the beneficiaries.
- Its benefits would be faster process completion, transparent fund transfer to the land owners/beneficiaries and reduction of procedural errors.
Key Findings
- The world has already lost more than 80% of its former wetlands, more than a third disappearing since 1970. That is a faster rate than for any other major ecosystem. Drains and dams have done far more damage to nature than chainsaws.
- The continued drainage of peatlands alone is responsible for more than 5% of global carbon emissions.
- The recent IPCC report on the impacts of climate change highlighted the vulnerability of ecosystems such as wetlands to high temperatures, fires and drought, and warned that their loss will amplify climate change by releasing large amounts of greenhouse gases.
- Drylands are regions of the world where more water evaporates than falls from the sky. Warm drylands cover about 40% of the Earth’s surface, but about 28% of this area overlaps with inland rivers and wetlands. The result is marshes, swamps, floodplains, and oases in a landscape where water is otherwise scarce.
- We have lost 87% of our wetlands in the past 300 years, and 35% since 1970.Today, they are disappearing faster than any other ecosystem – three times faster than even forests.
- The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands defines wetlands as “areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.”
- US Fish and Wildlife Service has adopted the definition given by Cowardin and others who defined wetland as, “are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.
- The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 notified by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change define wetlands as “area of marsh, fen, peatland or water; whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters, but does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies/ tanks specifically constructed for drinking water purposes and structures specifically constructed for aquaculture, salt production, recreation and irrigation purposes.”
- Economically, they provide an estimated $47 trillion worth of services annually and a livelihood for about one billion people.
- It also saves money: protecting a natural watershed providing clean water to New York City, for example, eliminated the need for a $10 billion water-treatment plant that would have cost $100 million per year to run.
- Wetlands are also a major source of nutrition, including fish and rice – a staple food on which 3.5 billion people depend. The world’s largest mangrove restoration in Senegal shows how conserving and restoring wetlands can be a valuable strategy to tackle hunger and poverty.
- Wetlands are also among the planet’s most effective carbon sinks, and thus play a central role in climate regulation.
- Wetlands act as sponges that ameliorate droughts by storing water and releasing it to maintain river flows long after the rains cease. And they protect against floods, too.
- Wetlands also protect against wildfires.
- Wetlands are among the world’s biggest stores of carbon, provide abundant freshwater and are home to a variety of wildlife.
- Wetlands are especially important in dry landscapes, as they can be the only supply of freshwater and food for people and wildlife for miles around. Some wetlands in drylands are famous.
- The restoration led to increased biodiversity; higher rice yields; and increased fish, oyster, and shrimp stocks. Along with improved food security, surplus catches continue to bring valuable income for villagers.
- From agricultural expansion and river diversion to invasive species and climate change, wetlands face numerous threats. But one of the gravest may be ignorance.
- The wetland continues to disappear under newly laid roads, modern housing constructions and other infrastructure development.
- Lack of awareness about the history and importance of wetlands among the people.
- A major threat to the inland wetland is the aquatic weeds, which multiply very quickly and cover the waterbodies (species of Salvinia, Pits, Eichhornia, Hydrilla, etc.).
- The most important threat to the coastal backwaters is the upstream anthropogenic activities, which exert stress on the downstream area.
- Climate Chage is one among the major threats along with deforestation and developments related to anthropogenic activities.
- The loss of wetlands leads to environmental and ecological problems, which have a direct impact on the socio-economic benefits of the associated populace. Serious consequences, including increased flooding, species decline, deformity, or extinction and decline in water quality could result.
- The Convention came into force in 1975 and is one of the oldest inter-governmental accords for preserving the ecological character of wetlands.
- The Convention’s mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world”.
- India has 49 Ramsar Sites which are the Wetlands of International importance.
- Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference.
- Wetlands of India that are in Montreux Record: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
- Chilka lake (Odisha) was placed in the record but was later removed from it.
- NPCA is a single conservation programme for both wetlands and lakes.
- It is a centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change.
- It was formulated in 2015 by merging of the National Lake Conservation Plan and the National Wetlands Conservation Programme.
- NPCA seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of administrative functions.
- Nodal authority: As per the Wetlands Rules, the Wetlands Authority within a state is the nodal authority for all wetland-specific authorities in a state/UT for the enforcement of the rules.
- Setting up any industry and expansion of existing industries,
- Dumping solid waste or discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries and any human settlements,
- Encroachment or conversion for non-wetlands uses.
- Integrated Management Plan: The guidelines recommend that the state/UT administration prepare a plan for the management of each notified wetland by the respective governments.
- Penalties: Undertaking any prohibited or regulated activities beyond the thresholds (defined by the state/UT administration) in the wetlands or its zone of influence, will be deemed violations under the Wetlands Rules. Violation of the Rules will attract penalties as per the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- Indonesia intends to block drains to re-wet 2.5 million hectares of dried peatlands and to bring back 600,000 hectares of mangroves, cleared for coastal prawn farms.
- The science is clear that wetlands are effective natural solutions for a range of global problems. And restoration by blocking drains or removing obstacles to natural regeneration is often cheap. What is missing are quantified targets to galvanise policy-makers and hold them into account.
- A minimum of 30% of surviving wetlands be put under formal management for conservation, and that planning systems ensure that all existing intact and wilderness wetlands are retained, while all others are managed with their biodiversity value to the fore.
- In addition, at least 20% of wetlands already degraded by human activity should be restored by 2030. That should include at least 10 million hectares of peatland and a 20% gain in mangrove cover.
- Tidal flats should be increased by at least 10% by removing sea walls, and at least half of the 7,000 wetland sites identified as critical to migrating birds should be managed with their needs as a priority.
- Finally, we need protection and restoration of water systems as a whole, not just specific wetlands. River's feed – and are fed by – wetlands all the way from their source to the ocean. They are connectors across landscapes, and sustain other ecosystems. Targets for protecting forests and oceans will fail if we don’t protect and restore wetlands.
- But beyond the targets, we need a mental reset. Most of us still have a strangely negative attitude to wetlands. We see them as dank badlands rather than rich ecosystems. Scary jungles have got a 20th-century rebranding as magical rainforests; our bogs, mires and swamps need a similar 21st-century makeover. Our climate, our biodiversity and the safety and livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people depend on it.
About National Smart Grid Mission
- National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) was established by Ministry of Power, Government of India in 2015 to plan and monitor implementation of policies and programmes related to Smart Grid activities in India.
- The primary aim of the Smart Grids is to improve reliability of the Electricity networks and make the grid amenable to renewable energy inputs through distributed generation.
- Further, increased efficiencies with Smart Grid and Smart Meters empower the consumers to manage their electricity consumption in a better manner and help them in reducing their bills.
- In addition, the NSGM also envisages capacity building initiatives for Distribution Sector personnel in the field of Smart grids.
- During the implementation of Smart Grid Pilot projects in State utilities, it was felt that smart grid efforts required urgent concerted focus for which it was necessary to create a comprehensive institutional arrangement capable of dedicating the manpower, resources and organizational attention needed to take it forward.
- National Smart Grid Mission was launched with an objective to address key issues of Smart Grid Initiatives on a large scale in the country and to make the Indian Power infrastructure cost effective, responsive and reliable.
- A 20-year perspective Plan for integrated inter-regional, inter-state and intra-state transmission network for the country as whole has been formulated. This will be a crucial backbone for the vision of 24x7 power for all homes in India.
- NSGM is housed under MoP considering the fact that most of the prominent stakeholders (DISCOMs, Regulators, Electrical Manufactures, CEA etc.) for Smart Grid are associated with MoP.
- Other concerned Ministries like MNRE and MoHI would also be associated with the mission. It is important to note that Smart Grid is a dynamic and evolving concept due to constant technological innovations.
- Therefore, the objectives, structure and functioning of NSGM is sketched so as to allow sufficient freedom and flexibility of operations without needing to refer the matter to different Ministries / Agencies frequently.
- 1st Level – Governing Council, headed by Minister of Power.
- 2nd Level – Empowered Committee, headed by Secretary (Power).
- Supportive Level – Technical Committee, headed by Chairperson CEA.
- 3rd Level – NSGM Project Management Unit.
- The NSGM Project Management Unit (NPMU) is headed by the Director NPMU. The Director NPMU is the Member of the Governing Council and Empowered Committee, and Member Secretary of Technical Committee.
- NPMU is the implementing agency for operationalizing the Smart Grid activities in the country under the guidance of the Governing Council and Empowered Committee.
- Corresponding to the NSGM Project Management Unit at national level, each of the States will also have a State Level Project Management Unit (SLPMU) which would be chaired by the Power Secretary of the State.
- The administrative / operation and maintenance expenses in this regard would be borne by respective States. NSGM will provide support for training & capacity building to SLPMUs for smart grid activities.
- The Smart Grid Knowledge Centre (SGKC) being developed by POWERGRID with funding from MoP will act as a Resource Centre for providing technical support to the Mission in all technical matters, including development of technical manpower, capacity building, outreach, suggesting curriculum changes in technical education etc.
- Possibility will also be explored for bilateral and multilateral financial support from various national and international agencies in this regard. The SGKC shall undertake programs and activities envisaged for it as per the guidance from NPMU.
- Grant up-to 30% of the project cost is available from NSGM budget. For selected components such as training & capacity building, consumer engagement etc, 100% grant is available.
- Access to affordable and quality power
- Aligning with the objectives of GoI
- Better power quality measurement and management
- Development of micro grids
- SAIDI/SAIFI indices management
- Reduction in AT&C losses to single digit
- Smart metering and AMI deployment
- Integrated communication and IT infrastructure
- Better peak load and outage management
- Dynamic tariffs and incentives, peak load shifting
- Better asset management and proactive measures
- Demand Response programs and Demand Side Management
- Proliferation for EV and charging infrastructure
- Policies for facilitation of EV charging infrastructure
- Smart Grid is an Electrical Grid with Automation, Communication and IT systems that can monitor power flows from points of generation to points of consumption (even down to appliances level) and control the power flow or curtail the load to match generation in real time or near real time.
- Smart Grids can be achieved by implementing efficient transmission & distribution systems, system operations, consumer integration and renewable integration. Smart grid solutions help to monitor, measure and control power flows in real time that can contribute to identification of losses and thereby appropriate technical and managerial actions can be taken to arrest the losses.
- Smart grid solutions can contribute to reduction of T&D losses, Peak load management, improved quality of Service, increased reliability, better asset management, renewable integration, better accessibility to electricity etc. and also lead to self-healing grids.
- Real time monitoring.
- Automated outage management and faster restoration.
- Dynamic pricing mechanisms.
- Incentivize consumers to alter usage during different times of day based on pricing signals.
- Better energy management.
- In-house displays.
- Web portals and mobile apps.
- Track and manage energy usage.
- Several groups of the society are provided with multiple benefits through the Smart Grid implementations. Such include utility, customers and the regulators while some of the benefits include:
- Reduction of T&D losses.
- Peak load management, improved QoS and reliability.
- Reduction in power purchase cost.
- Better asset management.
- Increased grid visibility and self-healing grids.
- Renewable integration and accessibility to electricity.
- Increased options such as ToU tariff, DR programs, net metering.
- Satisfied customers and financially sound utilities etc.
- The evolving smart grid with distributed generation resources and electric vehicles require reliable and secure communications in real-time between all nodes
- Smart Grid will also facilitate distributed generation, especially the roof top solar generation, by allowing movement and measurement of energy in both directions using control systems and net metering that will help “prosumers” i.e., the consumers who both produce and consume electricity, to safely connect to the grid.
About Pacer Initiative
Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER) scheme comprising the Antarctic program, Indian Arctic program, Southern Ocean program and Cryosphere and Climate program is implemented successfully through National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
Vision
To excel as a knowledge and technology enterprise in the earth system science realm towards socio-economic benefit of society.
Mission
To provide services for weather, climate, ocean and coastal state, hydrology, seismology and natural hazards; to explore and harness marine living and non-living resources in a sustainable manner and to explore the three poles of the Earth (Arctic, Antarctic and Himalayas).
Functions
- To augment and sustain long-term observations of the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere and solid earth to record the vital signs of Earth System and changes.
- To develop forecasting capability of atmosphere and oceanic phenomena through dynamical models and assimilation techniques and to build prediction systems for weather climate and hazards.
- To understand interaction between components of Earth Systems and human systems at various spatial and temporal scales.
- To explore polar and high seas regions of the Earth towards discovery of new phenomenon and resources.
- To translate knowledge and insights from Earth systems science into services for societal, environmental and economic benefit.
- Development of ocean technology for exploration of oceanic resources and societal applications.
- Construction of polar research vessel
- Construction of the third research base in Antarctica
- Indian scientific endeavours in the Arctic
- Polar expeditions-Antarctica
- Replacement of Maitri station
- Southern Ocean
- The world’s polar regions and their contiguous oceans are attracting more interest than ever before. Once regarded as barren, inhospitable places where only explorers go, the north and south polar regions have been transformed into high profile sites of scientific research.
- Be it in understanding the role of the polar realm in modulating the global climate or for studying the ecosystem adaptability and survival under extreme conditions, there has been an increasing interest in the science of the polar realm, over the past two-odd decades.
- Realizing the importance of Antarctica as a pedestal for scientific research, India launched the first of her Annual Scientific Expeditions to the Antarctica way back in 1981. This was followed by the country’s successful entry into the realms of Southern Ocean research in 2004 and the Arctic, three years later.
- To cater to the requirements of the Indian scientists in both the polar regions, two stations (Maitri and Himadri) have been established to serve as living-cum-research bases in the Antarctic and Arctic respectively. Another permanent research base in Antarctica is scheduled to be commissioned during the austral summer of 2012.
- The focus areas of scientific studies in the Arctic and the Antarctic have been largely confined to earth, atmospheric and biological sciences. As regards the studies of the cryosphere, the research initiatives by Indian scientists in the Antarctic comprise monitoring of the glaciers in Dronning Maudland, studies of ice dynamics and energy balance and climatic reconstructions from ice core analyses.
- Systematic studies if the cryospheric domain of the Arctic is as yet to be initiated. Considering the significance of the polar ice cap and the sea ice in the polar regions in modulating, if not driving the global climate, it is proposed to initiate during the XII Plan period, a major national mission of cryospheric studies of both the polar regions as well as of the Himalaya.
- Executed 39th& 40th Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica. 41st Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica is ongoing. Ten sediment cores were collected from lakes to reconstruct the past climate associated with the ice-sheet dynamics. Various glaciological and geophysical measurements were carried out in coastal Dronning Maud Land (cDML) to understand the modern snow accumulation patterns around the ice rises and the remote contribution to the glacio chemical processes.
- In addition, field-based studies were conducted in the lakes of Larsemann hills, East Antarctica for understanding of biogeochemical process in supraglacial environments. Clear-air atmospheric observatories containing automatic weather stations, a suite of sensors to measure aerosol and greenhouse gas concentrations has been established at Maitri and Bharati stations. Analysis of ice cores were carried out to understand dissolved organic carbon pathways and long-term climate variability over Antarctica.
- Twenty-three research projects related to glaciology, marine science, polar biology, and atmospheric science were successfully carried out during 2019-20 Arctic Expedition. IndARC mooring system along with Hydrophone system was successfully retrieved and deployed in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard.
- Coastal cruises were undertaken in the Arctic Svalbard archipelago to carry out biogeochemical and microbial research in the glacio-marine system. Modelling initiatives were started for various applications using Arctic Regional Ocean Model, Arctic regional atmospheric model with Chemistry module, and Global sea-ice simulations.
- Glaciological field campaigns were carried out in six benchmark glaciers in Chandra basin of Lahaul-Spiti region of Western Himalaya. Winter snow accumulation over the glaciers was recorded using snow pits and snow corners.
- Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey were conducted. Snow, ice, meltwater, water and cryoconite samples were collected from various glaciers and lakes. Two new Automatic Weather Station (AWS) systems were installed at Baralacha La, a high elevation site in the arid Spiti region to strengthen infrastructure across the Chandra basin.
- The 11th Indian Southern Ocean Expedition was executed successfully. Various atmospheric, geological, oceanographic and biological measurements were conducted in the Prydz Bay as well as across various fronts of the Southern Ocean. Sediment cores were collected from 13 locations and Argo floats were deployed to measure the different ocean parameters.
POSTED ON 26-03-2022 BY ADMIN
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