Deep-sea ecosystems beneath the George VI Ice shelf

• Scientists under the Challenger 150 initiative uncovered thriving deep-sea ecosystems beneath the George VI Ice Shelf in Antarctica
• Location: Situated in George VI Sound, isolating Alexander Island from Palmer Land, adjoining the Bellingshausen Sea in the Southern Ocean.
• Governance: Falls below the Antarctic Treaty System, with energetic studies led by countries like the UK and USA.

Geographical Features:

• Length: Extends from Ronne Entrance to Niznik Island 
• Rich in floating ice shelves, subglacial ecosystems, and complex underwater geography

Key Findings under Challenger 150 Initiative

• Flourishing Deep-Sea Ecosystems:
• Discovery of massive corals, sponges, icefish, and giant sea spiders
• Ecosystems survived no matter being reduced off from sunlight and surface nutrients for hundreds of years.
• The presence of complicated life in absence of known nutrient sources indicates unknown nutrient delivery pathways, beginning new avenues for research.

New Species Identified:

• Giant phantom jellyfish
• Octopi, vase-shaped sponges (in all likelihood centuries old), and sea spiders

Deep-Sea Ecosystems

• Definition: Marine ecosystems taking place under 200 metres, extending into the aphotic area—which accommodates 90% of Earth’s marine habitat.

Significant Habitats

• Abyssal Plains: Support species like sea cucumbers sustained by marine snow. Marine Snow is natural debris from upper layers, helping food chains and carbon sequestration.
• Hydrothermal Vents: Host chemosynthetic life (e.g., tubeworms, yeti crabs)
• Whale Falls: Create transient but efficient ecosystems (e.g., hagfish)

Significance of the Discovery

• Scientific Relevance: Overshadow preceding assumptions that intense, nutrient-disadvantaged environments can’t support complicated life.
• Opens new frontiers in marine biology, ecology, and geosciences.
• Climate Change Insights: As polar ice shelves melt due to global warming, these ecosystems may also undergo dramatic shifts.
• Studying them enables apprehend atmosphere resilience and predict environmental responses to climate trade.
• Marine Conservation Imperative: Emphasizes the need for worldwide frameworks to protect fragile marine biodiversity, specifically in the Southern Ocean.
• International Cooperation & Ocean Decade
• The Challenger 150 programme is a part of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030).
• It underscores the role of multilateral scientific collaboration in exploring and retaining the deep ocean.
• Endorsed by UNESCO/IOC, the initiative aligns with international sustainable development needs, particularly SDG 14 (Life Below Water).

Over 68,000 ‘Amrit Sarovars’ completed nationwide: MoS informs Lok Sabha

• as a Mission Amrit Sarovar, launched in April 2022 with the goal of constructing or rejuvenating 75 ponds (Amrit Sarovars) in every district across the nation, has achieved substantial progress.
• As of March 20, over 68,000 Amrit Sarovars have been completed, contributing to alleviating water scarcity and improving surface and groundwater availability in several regions, according to a statement from the Minister of State (MoS) for Rural Development, Kamlesh Paswan, on Tuesday.
• Each Amrit Sarovar covers approximately 1 acre, with a water-holding capacity of about 10,000 cubic meters, with special provisions for states with hilly terrain.
• These ponds are designed not only to meet immediate water needs but also to serve as sustainable water sources, reflecting the government’s long-term commitment to environmental sustainability and community welfare.
• Mission Amrit Sarovar has been implemented through convergence with other ongoing schemes such as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayi Yojana, and 15th Finance Commission Grants, along with state-led initiatives.
• The scheme also encourages public contributions, including crowdfunding and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) efforts, to support the work.
• Phase II of Mission Amrit Sarovar will focus on strengthening water availability with community participation, enhancing climate resilience, and promoting ecological balance. Key aspects of the mission include laying foundation stones by freedom fighters or martyrs’ families, public contributions for beautification, and celebrating national events at Sarovar sites.
• To ensure the sustainable use and maintenance of the Sarovars, user groups consisting mainly of Self-Help Group (SHG) members are being formed. These groups are responsible for the upkeep of the Sarovars, including silt removal after monsoons and maintaining plantation activities.

State-wise No. of Amrit Sarovars completed so far 

• A state-wise breakdown of the number of Amrit Sarovars completed as of March 20, 2025, shows Uttar Pradesh leading the way with 16,630 Sarovars, followed by Madhya Pradesh with 5,839 and Karnataka with 4,056.
• As of March 20, the state-wise completion of Amrit Sarovars is as follows:
• Uttar Pradesh has completed 16,630 Amrit Sarovars, while Madhya Pradesh has completed 5,839. Karnataka has successfully completed 4,056, and Assam has 2,966 completed Amrit Sarovars. Bihar has achieved 2,613, Gujarat 2,650, and Rajasthan 3,138. In Maharashtra, 3,055 Amrit Sarovars have been completed, and Tamil Nadu has finished 2,487. Chhattisgarh has also contributed significantly with 2,902 completed Amrit Sarovars.
• In total, 68,842 Amrit Sarovars have been completed, with the initiative playing a crucial role in fostering sustainable water resources and enhancing the resilience of local communities across the country

From 2 million to 28 million: how India’s automobile sector transformed in three decades

• The India’s automobile industry has witnessed remarkable growth over the past decade, driven by policy reforms, infrastructure advancements, and a strong push for domestic manufacturing. A key catalyst in this transformation has been the Make in India initiative.
• Launched in 2014, the initiative has fostered greater localization, innovation, and positioned India as a major global automotive hub. The sector has attracted substantial investment, boosted production, and made significant strides in electric vehicle (EV) manufacturing.
•  Since the de-licensing of the industry and the introduction of 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) under the automatic route in 1991, vehicle production has skyrocketed from 2 million in 1991-92 to approximately 28 million in 2023-24, reflecting India’s growing dominance in the global automobile market.
• The Indian automotive industry currently boasts a turnover of $240 billion (INR 20 lakh crore), playing a crucial role in the nation’s economy. The Ministry of Heavy Industries’ Annual Report 2024-25 indicates that the sector provides employment to approximately 30 million people, including 4.2 million direct jobs and 26.5 million indirect jobs.
•  Additionally, the export of vehicles and auto components reached $35 billion in the last fiscal year. India now stands as the world’s largest manufacturer of three-wheelers, ranks among the top two in two-wheeler production, is among the top four in passenger vehicle manufacturing, and features in the top five commercial vehicle producers globally.
• The auto component industry has also emerged as a significant contributor to India’s manufacturing growth. This sector contributes 2.3% to the national GDP and directly employs over 1.5 million people. In FY24, the industry recorded a turnover of INR 6.14 lakh crore ($74.1 billion), with 54% of revenue coming from domestic Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) and 18% from exports.
• The Ministry of Commerce and Industry reported that the sector has maintained a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.63% over FY16-FY24. Exports in FY24 stood at $21.2 billion, generating a trade surplus of $300 million, with projections indicating growth to $30 billion by 2026. The industry’s key export destinations include Europe ($6.89 billion), North America ($6.19 billion), and Asia ($5.15 billion).
• To boost domestic production and reduce reliance on imports, the auto component industry is set to invest $7 billion by FY28 in advanced automotive technologies such as electric motors and automatic transmissions. Over the past two years, the industry has achieved a 5.8% reduction in imports, aligning with India’s ‘China Plus One’ strategy to diversify supply chains.
• The automobile sector accounts for approximately 6% of India’s GDP. In FY24, India exported 4.5 million vehicles across various segments, while domestic production included 6.72 million passenger vehicles and 3.45 million two-wheelers. Foreign investments in India’s automobile industry have surged, with $36 billion in FDI inflows over the past four years.
• Major investments include Hyundai’s $4 billion (INR 33,200 crore) expansion plan, Mercedes-Benz’s $360 million (INR 3,000 crore) investment, and Toyota’s $2.3 billion (INR 20,000 crore) expansion initiative.
• India’s EV market has witnessed significant growth, with 4.4 million EVs registered by August 2024, including 950,000 in the first eight months of the year alone, achieving a market penetration rate of 6.6%.
• The government has launched several initiatives to accelerate the shift towards sustainable mobility.
• The Ministry of Heavy Industries has implemented the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) battery storage and the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles in India (FAME) Scheme.
• In the Union Budget 2024-25, the government allocated INR 2,671.33 crore under the FAME scheme and announced customs duty exemptions on critical minerals required for EV battery production.
• Additionally, the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS) was introduced in March 2024 with a budget of INR 500 crore for four months, focusing on enhancing EV adoption in the two and three-wheeler segments.
• The discovery of lithium reserves in Jammu & Kashmir is expected to bolster India’s position in the global EV battery supply chain. Industry estimates project the EV sector to reach $113.99 billion by 2029.
• The Ministry of Heavy Industries has implemented various schemes to drive EV adoption and develop charging infrastructure. The FAME India Scheme Phase II, launched in April 2019 with a budget of INR 11,500 crore, has sanctioned 2,636 charging stations across 62 cities in 24 states and Union Territories.
•  The PLI Scheme for Auto and Auto Components, introduced in September 2021 with a budgetary outlay of INR 25,938 crore, aims to enhance domestic manufacturing of Advanced Automotive Technology (AAT) products.
• The PLI Scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC), approved in May 2021 with INR 18,100 crore, focuses on establishing a robust domestic battery manufacturing ecosystem.
• Other major initiatives include the PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) Scheme, announced in September 2024 with an allocation of INR 10,900 crore, supporting EV manufacturing across various vehicle categories.
•  Additionally, the PM e-Bus Sewa-Payment Security Mechanism (PSM) Scheme, launched in October 2024 with a budget of INR 3,435.33 crore, seeks to deploy over 38,000 electric buses nationwide. In March 2024, the Scheme for Promotion of Manufacturing of Electric Passenger Cars (SMEC) was introduced, requiring a minimum investment of INR 4,150 crore with a goal of achieving 50% domestic value addition within five years.
• Other ministries have introduced policies to facilitate EV adoption. The Ministry of Power revised guidelines for EV charging infrastructure in September 2024 to create an interoperable network.
• The Ministry of Finance reduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on EVs from 12% to 5%. The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) has exempted battery-operated vehicles from permit requirements and introduced green license plates for EVs. Furthermore, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has amended building by-laws to mandate EV charging stations in private and commercial buildings.

National Mission for Manuscripts

•  The Government is dedicated to expanding digitization and enhancing public access to uphold and celebrate India’s rich textual traditions.
• The Government has outlined key objectives and initiatives under the National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM) to preserve, document, and disseminate India’s rich manuscript heritage.
• The Mission has been restructured with the nomenclature ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’ as a Central Sector Scheme for the period 2024-31 with a total allocation of ₹482.85 crores. The key objectives of the Mission include:
• Survey and Documentation: Conducting a nationwide survey and registration of manuscripts to maintain a comprehensive record of India’s manuscript wealth.
• Conservation and Preservation: Scientific conservation and preventive preservation of manuscripts across repositories in India.
• Digitization: Large-scale digitization of manuscripts to create a National Digital Manuscripts Library for wider accessibility.
• Publication and Research: Editing, translating, and publishing rare and unpublished manuscripts to promote scholarly research.
• Capacity Building: Organizing training programs in manuscriptology, paleography, and conservation to build expertise.
• Outreach and Awareness: Conducting exhibitions, seminars, and cultural programs to increase public awareness of manuscript heritage.
• Collaboration with Institutions: Engaging with academic institutions in India and industry leaders for manuscript research and preservation efforts.
• The National Mission for Manuscripts has played a pivotal role in preserving, documenting, and disseminating India’s manuscript heritage, including in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, Varanasi, has been a key partner in manuscript research, documentation, and conservation.
• Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs) and Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) have been set up in reputed institutions in the state.
• As of now, over 5.2 million manuscripts have been documented across India, including a substantial number from Uttar Pradesh.
• The Mission has conducted numerous capacity-building programs and workshops in Uttar Pradesh to train scholars and archivists in manuscript conservation and transcription. Special projects have been undertaken to preserve and promote rare Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic manuscripts from various libraries in the state.
• The Government through the National Mission for Manuscripts (now called as ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’) is committed to safeguarding India''s invaluable manuscript heritage while ensuring its wider accessibility and academic integration. Through the National Mission for Manuscripts, significant efforts have been made to digitize manuscripts and make them accessible to the public through online platforms, which includes the following:
• So far, approximately 3.5 lakh manuscripts, covering over 3.5 crore folios, have been digitized.
• Over 1,35,000 manuscripts have been uploaded on the web portal namami.gov.in, with 76,000 manuscripts available for free public access.
• The mission aims to digitize folios in the next five years. The focus is on rare and fragile manuscripts to ensure their long-term preservation.
• The Government aims to ensure that India’s manuscript heritage is not only preserved but also actively utilized for academic, cultural, and historical research. Through the ‘Gyan Bharatam Mission’, the Government has formulated an expansion plan to enhance public access to India''s manuscript heritage. The key measures, inter alia, include:
• Working with academic institutions, private collectors, and research organizations to expand the digitization and dissemination of manuscripts.
• Collaborations with universities to promote research and study of manuscripts.
• Organizing regular exhibitions, workshops, and manuscript festivals to engage scholars and the public. Creating a pool of new generation of manuscriptologists.

What are earth observation satellites? How do they support environmental research? 

• Earth observation satellites (EOSs) are spacecraft that are placed in a temporary or permanent orbit around the Earth. These satellites are equipped with sensors, mostly image capturing ones, to collect data on the atmosphere and surface of the Earth, and help in monitoring weather events, land-use patterns, vegetation cover, ice cover, oceanic patterns, and climate change events. As of 2023, there are 322 in-orbit EOSs launched by 93 space organisations and agencies from around the world.
• The first EOS was the Television Infrared Observation Satellite-1 (TIROS-1), which was launched in 1960 and had very basic imaging capabilities. The second generation of EOSs (Landsat 1-4, launched between 1970 and early 1980) had improved image resolution and multispectral imaging.
• The third generation of EOSs (Landsat 5-9, late 1980s-now) have high resolution imaging, advanced capabilities for environmental monitoring, and improved data processing.
• India launched its first satellite, Bhaskara-I in 1979; the images obtained from this EOS provided important data on hydrology and forestry.
• Till date, India has launched 44 EOSs, with the latest one, EOS-07 being launched in early 2023. EOS-07 is expected to generate multispectral high-resolution images for monitoring agriculture, forestry, hydrology, and disaster management.
• The soon-to-be launched (in March 2025) NISAR mission, a joint effort between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), will use radar to systematically map the Earth and produce fine-resolution images.

What types of sensors do earth observation satellites have?

• Earth observation satellites can carry a variety of sensors that are broadly classified as either passive or active sensors and optical or microwave sensors.
• Passive sensors are usually spectrometers and radiometers that measure reflected solar radiations, whereas active sensors produce pulses of energy and measure the reflected radiation.
• Passive optical sensors include spectrophotometers that measure visible light, infrared light, and thermal infrared emissions. Visible and infrared light sensors record information on the earth’s surface such as landforms, distribution of urban areas, and vegetation patterns.
• Thermal infrared emissions are used to monitor land temperatures, sea surface temperatures, volcanic activity, and fires.
• LiDaR (Light Detection and Ranging) sensors are active sensors that emit light from a laser and can be used to measure forest height and the amount of particulate matter in air. Active microwave sensors such as the synthetic aperture radar have been used to study Antarctic icebergs and track oil spills.

What can we find out from earth observation satellite data?

• Data received from earth observation satellites have been instrumental in demonstrating the effects of global warming and climate change. Based on data from satellites and other sources, it is now clear that the global surface temperature of the Earth has risen by 1.28 degrees Celsius (as of 2024) compared to the 1880s, when temperature record-keeping first began.
•  Further corrections to satellite data analyses indicate that global warming was nearly 140% faster since 1998.
• Similarly, satellite imagery has shown that the Arctic sea ice coverage has been shrinking at a rate of 12.2% per decade, alerting scientists to the melting of the polar ice caps. This is further supported by EOS data showing global changes in water dynamics, notably sea-level rise on the Earth, and variations in surface water reservoirs.
• EOSs have also been invaluable in monitoring the Earth’s oceans by tracking oceanic carbon-cycles, water quality, and even studying marine wildlife and animal migration patterns.
• Other key findings that EOS data have contributed to, are in monitoring greenhouse gases, carbon-cycle fluxes, the ozone layer, land-use changes including deforestation and urbanisation, in the  prediction of extreme weather events and providing early warning for disasters.  
• A relatively recent and major phenomenon deduced through EOS data was the effect of the COVID-19 lockdown on reducing global carbon and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) emissions.

 What can these satellites tell us about land-use changes?

• EOS data has been invaluable for tracking land-use changes, especially loss of tropical forests, illegal deforestation, desertification, urban growth, and monitoring agricultural land.
• In India, satellite data have been used to understand and monitor patterns of deforestation and rapid urbanisation in the Himalayas as well as in monitoring the forest cover dynamics in the Western and Eastern Ghats.
• Illegal logging has also been documented using satellite imagery in Arunachal Pradesh and Karnataka has recently harnessed satellite surveillance to tackle forest encroachment.
• In addition, the long-term ecosystem degradation effects of operations such as opencast mining and coal mining, and contamination of groundwater due to seawater sand mining have been shown using satellite data.
• Riverbank erosion in the Himalayan foothills, Godavari, and the lower Ganges have also been monitored using Landsat imagery.

How does EOS track pollution?

• Data from EOSs have been widely used in tracking the levels of air pollutants, specifically carbon emissions, NO₂, sulfur dioxide (SO₂), methane, ozone, and particulate matter.
• Recent studies using EOS data have shown that in India, NO₂, which was once thought to be a major air pollutant in cities due to its presence in vehicle exhaust, is just as prevalent in rural areas.
• Similarly, 16 years of satellite and emissions data on SO₂ levels in India, show a slight dip between 2016 and 2019 due to reductions in emissions and an increase in atmospheric water vapour that chemically ‘mops up’ the gas. Trends in stubble burning in north India and the resultant effects on the air quality of the surrounding areas are now being tracked in real-time to help frame policies to mitigate this practice.
• The COVID-19 lockdown provided several research groups the opportunity to demonstrate that reduced travel/transportation is important for improving air quality, in national, regional, and city-wide scales in India, using a combination of data from surface and satellite sources.
• Likewise, data from the satellites Sentinel-2 and Landast-8 were also used to show improvements in the water quality of the Ganges (water turbidity dropped by 55%) and coastal wetlands in southern India and the Sundarbans and during the lockdown.    
• In addition to monitoring air and water pollution, EOSs can also been used to detect and monitor oil spills along the Indian coast.

Can EOSs help in addressing climate change impacts?

• A major fallout of climate change is an increase in the number of extreme weather events that lead to disasters. EOSs are invaluable in monitoring these and serve as space-based early warning systems.
• In India, satellite data has been used to not only track cyclones, glacial movements, earthquakes, forest fires, landslides, and extreme rainfall events, but also to map areas prone to flooding and understand rockslides. These have been critical for the development of early warning systems to minimise loss of life.
• Satellite data are also being used to predict changes in land characteristics in India. Climate change-induced desertification of eastern and northeastern India, along with a decrease in aridity in north-western and southern peninsular India have been predicted using data on rainfall, evaporation, transpiration, and soil from various sources such as the Climate Research Unit and the National Remote Sensing Centre archive, Bhuvan.
• Recent analyses using satellite data on the trade-offs between food, water, and air quality in northwest India, has shown that increased paddy cultivation in this area has led to groundwater depletion and worsening air quality indices, pointing to an urgent need to reconcile food security with preservation of water and air quality.

What does the future hold for the satellites?

• With scientists exploring the use of satellite data to predict outbreaks and mortality rates of diseases such as malaria and dengue, healthcare decisions are also likely to be impacted by EOS data.
• In addition, EOSs have been useful in the management of key industries. For example, in India and Nepal, satellite data are being used to help governments and farmers take informed agricultural decisions.
• Data from Oceansat and INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) are being used to identify potential fishing zones, manage inland and offshore fisheries, and track illegal fishing.
• Currently, earth observation data are immensely valuable for disaster management and informing policies on mitigating climate change.
• “Weather and climate science depends heavily on observations to deepen our understanding of the science and inform policy decisions. Without sufficient high-quality observations, major gaps will emerge in our ability to forecast weather and develop climate models for future predictions. In addition, India’s ambitious National Clean Air Program requires high-resolution spatiotemporal data for tracking pollution trends.
•  Achieving this would be difficult without such satellite data”, says V. Vinoj, a Professor from the Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar. “A well-calibrated EOS in space, working in conjunction with ground-based measurements, represents a one-time investment with substantial returns. Satellite infrastructure will provide valuable, long-term data with high spatiotemporal resolution, making it a cost-effective solution for both advancing scientific knowledge and informing policy”, he adds.
• Unfortunately, cutting-edge research now suggests that greenhouse gases may limit the number of satellites that can orbit the Earth. The study indicates that the thermosphere, which is the atmospheric layer where most satellites establish orbits, is shrinking due to greenhouse gases.
• Decommissioned EOSs are typically equipped with propulsion systems that enable ground control to lower them to approximately 450 km after their missions conclude. At this altitude, atmospheric drag gradually pulls them down to Earth, usually within one to two years,
• But now, the decreased density of the thermosphere reduces atmospheric drag on satellites, which in turn, increases their lifespan in orbit which means they may not come to lower heights sooner.
• In effect, this can increase space junk and debris that can litter sought-after regions of the thermosphere and increase the changes of in-orbit collisions.
•  For now, India has ambitious plans for the space sector. The Indian space economy is expected to grow from 8.4 billion dollars to 44 billion dollars in the next eight years, and a recent report from ISRO estimates that the Indian economy sees a multiplier effect of 2.5 dollars for every dollar generated by the country’s space sector. With such promising prospects, EOSs are likely to be key components of India’s future economy.

Auction for offshore mineral blocks met with resistance and delays

• The central government’s proposal to carry out offshore mining in India has been met with strong resistance in Kerala, where fishers have categorically said they will not allow the seabed to be dug up for mineral extraction
• “The livelihoods of more than 25,000 fishers will be affected by offshore mining,” said Charles George, President of the Kerala Matsya Thozhilali Aikya Vedi, a fishing union. “The dredging up of the seabed will lead to detrimental environmental damage which will deplete fish stocks.”
• In November 2024, the Union Ministry of Mines launched the first ever auction of 13 offshore mineral blocks for mining. Union Minister G. Kishan Reddy said the auction would support India’s infrastructure development and energy transition, while also supporting the country’s quest for self-reliance in the global critical mineral supply chain.
• Critical minerals are vital materials for batteries, solar panels, electric vehicles and other instruments used in renewable energy sources. Offshore mining could turn the country into “a leading player in the global critical minerals market,”
• On offer are three blocks of construction sand off the Kerala coast, three blocks of lime mud off the Gujarat coast, and seven blocks of polymetallic nodules off the coasts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
•  Polymetallic nodules are small rocks containing a mix of metals, like nickel, copper, zinc and iron, which are globally sought after.
• The resistance to offshore mining, however, has now reached Parliament’s doorstep. Around 200 fishers from the Kerala Fisheries Coordination Committee marched to Parliament on February 27, demanding the mining blocks off the Kerala coast be cancelled.

Spotlight on livelihoods and biodiversity

• The Geological Survey of India conducted seismic surveys and chemical analyses to determine reserves off the coasts of Kerala and Gujarat.
• The three mining blocks off the coast of Kerala’s Kollam city are estimated to hold 302 million tonnes of construction sand in reserves, according to tender documents. Lime mud reserves off the coast of Gujarat’s Porbandar city are estimated to have 1,712 million tonnes of lime mud in reserves.
• No reserves were estimated for polymetallic nodules off the coast of Great Nicobar Island, where the GSI only conducted observational surveys using geomagnetic survey methods.
• The fishers’ protests against mining the Kollam blocks have spotlighted the impacts of offshore mining on livelihoods and biodiversity. Unlike the other two destinations for offshore mining, the blocks in Kerala are of the shallowest depth, less than 100 meters from the sea bed.
• “The area that they want to mine has the most fish abundance. It is the most productive zone for fishermen where you can find mackerel, oil sardines, anchovy, king fish, tuna, and a variety of prawns,”
•  Traditional fishing communities depend heavily on the rich fish stocks associated with these rocky reefs for their economic survival,” says the report, adding, “The proposed offshore sand mining activities, targeting depths of 40-60 meters off Kollam, directly threaten these rocky reef habitats.
• As these reefs serve as feeder systems that sustain marine biodiversity and ensure fishery productivity, their destruction could have severe consequences for marine life and the fishing communities that depend on them.”
• The impacts of seabed mining, particularly at greater depths, are still being understood worldwide. 
• Simulated impacts by the National Institute of Oceanography suggest offshore mining will result in considerable sediment displacement, which will “create turbidity and decrease the available sunlight for photosynthesis, causing long term effects on biological productivity,” in the water column. Impacts may also be felt by the marine life living within the water column.

Policy bottlenecks

• Offshore mining is governed by the The Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, which was amended in 2023 to include an auction process to mine blocks. The Act permits the development of maritime resources in India’s territorial waters, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and other maritime zones.
• The 13 blocks up for auction will award composite licenses that allow for the exploration and production of mineral resources by private players and Public Sector Undertakings.
• The government’s enthusiasm for offshore mining comes against the backdrop of India’s aggressive push to strengthen its critical mineral supply chain. In January, the Cabinet approved the National Critical Mineral Mission – a Rs 16,000  crore (Rs. 160 billion)plan to undertake 1200 exploration projects and auction 100 mineral blocks.
• The mission “aims to create a fast track regulatory approval process for critical mineral mining projects,” in addition to offering “financial incentives for critical mineral exploration and promote the recovery of these minerals from overburden and tailings,” says a statement from the Ministry of Mines .
• Private players, however, have been slow to match the government’s enthusiasm. Four tranches of onshore critical mineral blocks have been met with lukewarm responses and cancellations. Several blocks included sought-after minerals like lithium, used in EVs.
• “When blocks containing significant minerals are not auctioned, it indicates there’s a problem either in operationality or profitability for players,” .
• The bidding process favours players who promise higher premiums on the value of the mined mineral, which is paid to the state government in addition to royalties. This, however, resulted in “irrationally high bids.
•  “Most of the bids came in at more than 50%, which raises questions about how these players plan on remaining profitable while paying considerable premiums to the government,”.
• “Many winning companies also did not have previous experience mining critical minerals, which raises questions about their expertise,”
• The extraction of polymetallic nodules, found at depths between 900 and1500 meters off the Great Nicobar Island coast, are of particular interest given their potential contribution to the energy transition. Lack of information on the quantity of reserves and the potential for geopolitical tensions with China could cast doubt on the commercial viability of these mining blocks.

Over half of global crop production dependent on just 9 crops: FAO

• The diversity of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture was under growing threat as despite 6,000 plant species cultivated, 60 per cent of the global crop production was alarmingly dependent on just nine crops, an important report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) .
• These nine crops were sugarcane, maize, rice, wheat, potatoes, soybeans, oil palm fruit, sugar beet, and cassava.
• The Third Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (SoW3) was based primarily on information provided by 128 countries and four regional and 13 international research centres.
• Published by FAO, the report, through surveys of farmers’ varieties/landraces (FV/LR), found an average of 6 per cent of their diversity threatened globally. Of the 18 sub-regions surveyed, diversity in nine was more alarming with 18 per cent or more of FV/LR reported as threatened.
• The highest percentage of threatened diversity was found in southern Africa, followed by the Caribbean and Western Asia. Southern Asia, along with Australia and New Zealand had the least threatened diversity of farmers’ varieties and landraces.
• The report also showed that during the reporting period (2011-2022), approximately 35 million hectares in 51 countries — equivalent to 44 per cent of the total crop area of reported sites within areas of high diversity — were cultivated with FV/LR.
• Talking about the state of in-situ (on-farm) conservation, the report mentioned that approximately 42 per cent of surveyed taxa (grouping of plant species) were reported to be threatened at either the species or varietal levels.
• In India too, conservation interventions were required to prevent large-scale genetic on-farm erosion as the study highlighted that more than 50 per cent of documented FV/LRs across five agroecological zones were considered as threatened.
• Meanwhile, in terms of ex situ conservation, despite advances made over the past 10 years, it was found that many issues that impede the efficient and effective conservation of PGRFA still remain and need to be addressed.
• “Ex situ conservation still lacks the necessary political and financial support in many countries, which often results in limited or sporadic funding, lack of sufficiently qualified staff, and insufficient infrastructure and logistics,” it said.
• The report also noted the contribution of Indian agriculture ministry’s project of ‘creation of seed hubs for increasing indigenous production of pulses’ initiated in 2016 towards greater availability of quality seeds of new (less than 10-year-old) high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of pulse crops to smallholder farmers.
• This project led to an increase in pulse production from 14.76 million tonnes in 2007 and 2008 to 24.42 million tonnes in 2020 and 2021.

Climate change a threat to crop diversity

• Even as the frequency and severity of erratic extreme weather events has been on the rise, the report noted that many countries reported a gap in assessing the impacts of disasters on crop diversity.
• “While impacts on the agricultural sector after emergencies are often estimated in terms of monetary and nutrition costs, many countries reported a gap in assessing the impacts of disasters on crop diversity.
• Additional challenges are the identification of reliable sources of materials and the fact that the germplasm distributed to farmers after disaster situations may not always be fully adapted to the local conditions or the cultural environment,”.

Northeast records first dog-faced snake

• Dog Faced Water Snake is a semi aquatic It is known for its mildly venomous nature.
• It is part of the Homalopsidae It also includes Indo Australian rear fanged water snakes.
• The species inhabits mangroves, coastal mudflats, & estuarine habitats across Southeast Asia & northern Australia.
• In India, it has been observed in coastal regions such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, & the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Recently, it was found in Northeast India. So it is extending its range away from coastal areas

Lifestyle and Behavior

• Habitat: The Dog Faced Water Snake spends most of its life in water. It is well adapted to marine environments. It also has salt glands that help to expel salt.
• Diet: It hunts fish & crustaceans in shallow waters. It uses a sit and wait ambush strategy to catch its prey.

Physical Features

• Length: it can grow up to long.
• Appearance: it has a wide head & snout. That''s why it gets its dog faced name.
• It has striped dark brown skin with a white underbelly.
• The snake is adapted for slow moving, shallow, & murky waters. It can swim well.
• On soft mud, it can move quickly using a sidewinding

Conservation Status

• The Dog-Faced Water Snake is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. it means that it is not currently at risk of extinction.

Plastic pollution killing seabirds: Study links ingestion to multi-organ failure, brain damage

• Plastic pollution is causing a health crisis in seabirds, according to a new study. which found that ingesting plastic causes neurodegeneration similar to Alzheimer’s in chicks as young as 90 days old. The study, also discovered that chicks had cell rupture and multi-organ failure, affecting the stomach, liver, brain and kidneys. 
• Researchers from the University of Tasmania analysed short-tailed shearwaters (Ardenna tenuirostris), a marine wildlife species from Lord Howe Island, Australia, between 2022 and 2024.
• Describing the findings as alarming, scientists who studied seabird chicks under 90 days old reported that their health was heavily compromised. The chicks ingested plastic through their parents, as they had not yet left the nest.
• The research also found evidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a neurodegenerative disorder that leads to the progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord.

Plastic Pollution?

• Plastic pollution means the accumulation of manufactured plastic products in natural environments which harms both humans and wildlife.

Characteristics of Plastic:

• Hazardous Substances: Plastic is made from materials that can cause illness.
• Non Biodegradable: Plastic is designed to last long. So it is hard to break down naturally.
• Environmental Damage: It usually ends up in landfills & oceans. It is also destroying plant life & endangering wildlife.

Concerns:

• Plastic Pollution & Climate Change: The production of plastic releases greenhouse gases. It is contributing to climate change. And Its breakdown in the environment further accelerates global warming.
• Waste Management Issues: Most plastic waste cannot be effectively recycled.

 The Impact of Plastic Pollution

• Microplastics in Seafood:
• These were found in 114 marine species.
• 1/3rd of them end up in human food.

Health Impacts:

• Inflammation
• DNA damage (Genotoxicity)
• Oxidative stress
• Cell death (Apoptosis)
• Increased risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease.
• Plastic in Packaging (BPA):
• Harmful Effects: Bisphenol A (BPA) is found in many plastic items that come into direct contact with food.
• It also affects brain development in fetuses & babies.
• It is Linked to high blood pressure type 2 diabetes, & cardiovascular diseases in adults.

Microplastics in Bottled Water:

• WHO Findings (2018): Microplastics found in 90% of bottled water,
• Only a small percentage free from plastic contamination.

Air Pollution from Burning Plastic:

• Poor waste management also leads to plastic burning. It is releasing harmful particles into the air that we breathe in.
• It is also contributing to respiratory issues & other health problems.
• 3. Plastic Pollution and Its Impact on Seabirds
• Recently, A study was conducted to analyse short-tailed shearwaters (Ardenna tenuirostris) from Lord Howe Island Australia.

 Findings:

• Seabird chicks were ingested with plastic through their parents before leaving the nest. It is now leading to severe health problems.

International Conventions:

• UNCLOS (1982): Mandate: it requires signatory countries including India to adopt measures to prevent, reduce, & control marine pollution.
• MARPOL (1973, Annex V): it prohibits plastic disposal from ships enforcing zero plastic discharge into the oceans.
• Basel Convention (1989): It Regulates the transboundary movement of hazardous plastic waste. It is ensuring safer handling & disposal across borders.
• National Policies and Regulations:
• Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022: Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): it Makes producers of plastic packaging accountable for collection and recycling of plastic waste.
• Single-Use Plastic Ban (2022): it Bans specific single-use plastic items such as cutlery, straws, and carry bags below 75 microns
• Merchant Shipping Rules (2009): it aligns with MARPOL to prevent plastic discharge from ships in Indian waters.
• Draft National Marine Litter Policy: it aims at plastic waste reduction, coastal clean-ups, and capacity building of urban local bodies to manage marine litter.

Institutional Initiatives:

• National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR): It conducts beach litter quantification studies and organizes clean-up campaigns to address marine plastic pollution.
• India-Germany Agreement (2021) : it focuses on improving waste management systems in coastal cities.
• UK-India Roadmap 2030: it Promotes marine science research & sustainable coastal ecosystem management to tackle plastic pollution.

World Water Day 2025: Theme, significance, report of UN Water and more

• Water is the lifeblood of our planet, yet millions around the world—including those in developed nations—struggle to access clean, safe water. Recognising its vital importance, World Water Day is observed every year on March 22 to raise awareness about the need for sustainable water management and conservation.
• This global initiative, led by the United Nations, highlights a key theme each year—ranging from protecting groundwater to ensuring equitable access to clean water for all.
• It serves as a call to action, urging individuals and governments alike to take meaningful steps toward water conservation. Here’s everything you need to know about World Water Day 2025, including its history, significance, and how you can contribute to this crucial cause.

World Water Day 2025: Theme 

• A high-level event to observe the World Day for Glaciers and World Water Day 2025 is being organised by the permanent missions of Tajikistan, Barbados, Peru, Senegal, Singapore, Switzerland, and the United Arab Emirates in collaboration with UNESCO, WMO, UNDESA, UN-Water, IAEA, IUCN, and UNU-INWEH.
• "Glacier Preservation" is the theme for World Water Day 2025, highlighting the vital role glaciers play in preserving freshwater supplies worldwide and the pressing need for conservation efforts in the face of climate change.

History of World Water Day

• At the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNICED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the idea for World Water Day was first proposed. To emphasise the value of freshwater and promote the sustainable management of water resources, the United Nations General Assembly declared March 22nd to be World Water Day in 1993.
• Since then, World Water Day has been celebrated yearly, with a different subject pertaining to sustainability and water conservation each year.

Significance of World Water Day

• World Water Day is important because it raises awareness of the status of the water resources around the world and encourages action to solve urgent water-related issues. 
• World Water Day is a call to action for governments, organisations, and individuals to prioritise water conservation and management initiatives, as billions of people worldwide lack access to safe and clean water, and many places are experiencing water scarcity and pollution. 
• With the planet facing mounting challenges from population growth, rapid urbanisation, industrial expansion, and climate change, the strain on water resources has never been greater. In this context, World Water Day holds even greater significance, serving as a crucial reminder of the urgent need for sustainable water management and conservation efforts worldwide.

World Water Day 2025: UN-Water Development Report

• UN-Water publishes a flagship report on water and sanitation every year that offers comprehensive analysis and policy suggestions. The following topics will be covered in the 2025 version, "Water Towers: Mountains and Glaciers":
• The part that mountain water sources and glaciers play in maintaining the world''s water supply.
• Glacial retreat and its cascading consequences as a result of climate change.
• Techniques for reducing water crises and protecting frozen water supplies.

What are the Key Highlights of WWDR 2025 ?

• Global Warming in Mountain Ranges: The report confirms that all mountain ranges have shown evidence of warming since the early 20th century.
• Changing Precipitation: As global temperatures rise more mountain precipitation is now falling as rain instead of snow. It is causing snowpacks to thin & melt earlier each year.

Impact of Melting Glaciers

• Severe Consequences: The report warns that the receding snow & ice in mountain regions will have severe consequences for both people & nature.
• River Flow Changes: Accelerated melting of snowpacks initially increases river flow in glacier fed basins. But once the snow melts beyond a certain threshold then river flow will decline in the long term.
• Peak Water: The report also highlights that many regions including the tropical Andes, western Canada, & the Swiss Alps have already passed the peak water Here glacier fed rivers have begun to experience declining water flow.

Glacial Loss and Projections

• Many glaciers have disappeared entirely. Colombia has lost 90% of its glacial area since the mid 19th century.
• Projections suggest that if global temperatures rise by 5-4°C then glaciers could lose 26-41% of their 2015 mass by 2100.

Impacts of Glacier Retreat

• Water Scarcity: As glaciers retreat the report predicts a reduction in freshwater for drinking & agriculture.
• Stress on Ecosystems: Local ecosystems dependent on glacier fed water systems will face stress. It is threatening biodiversity.
• Increased Risk of GLOFs: The report warns of the growing risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These are sudden floods caused by the failure of natural dams holding glacial lakes.

Global Water Supply Threat

• The retreat of glaciers threatens the food & water supply for 2 billion people around the world.
• 2/3rd of irrigated agriculture globally is expected to be affected by melting glaciers & reduced snowfall in mountain areas caused by climate change.

Significance

• The 2025 WWDR shows the urgent need for climate action to address the risks associated with glacier retreat & its impacts on freshwater resources.
• As glaciers shrink their role as water towers supplying fresh water to millions of people is diminished. It is putting vast populations & ecosystems at risk.

Who was Aurangzeb, 17th-century Mughal ruler who remains controversial?

• Aurangzeb, the 17th-century Mughal emperor, remains a polarising figure. His over 50-year reign saw significant economic growth for India, but he is often remembered as a ruthless tyrant who allegedly hated music and ordered the destruction of several Hindu temples.
• While popular narratives describe his policies as intolerant towards non-Islamic faiths, some historians argue they were more politically motivated.

 Aurangzeb’s ‘reign of terror’

• Born Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad on November 3, 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat, Aurangzeb was the third son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. He ascended to the Mughal throne in 1658 after a power struggle, which included defeating his brother Dara Shikoh and imprisoning his father until the latter’s death.
• Unlike his great-grandfather Akbar, known for his secular policies, Aurangzeb was less tolerant towards non-Muslims. He re-imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims, which had been abolished by Akbar. Aurangzeb also ordered the destruction of some Hindu temples.
•  The most noted act of his tyranny was the execution of the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, for refusing to convert to Islam. The Zafarnama, a letter written in 1705 by the tenth Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh, indicts Aurangzeb for moral and spiritual bankruptcy, highlighting Guru Tegh Bahadur’s sacrifice to save Hindus from forced conversion.

Aurangzeb’s achievements

• Aurangzeb’s nearly 50-year reign from 1658 to 1707 marked the Mughal empire’s greatest territorial extent, with significant military campaigns in South India.
•  He successfully conquered the Deccan states, including Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687, extending the empire to cover about 4 million square kilometers by 1689, with a population over 158 million. His campaigns also reached southern regions like Tanjore and Trichinopoly, though maintaining control was challenging.
• Historian Angus Maddison estimates that in 1700, India accounted for approximately 25 per cent of the global GDP, surpassing the combined GDP of Europe at that time.
• This period also marked a phase of proto-industrialization, with India producing about 25 per cent of the world’s industrial output up until the 18th century, excelling in sectors such as textiles, shipbuilding, and steel.
• Aurangzeb’s personal life included copying the Quran and sewing caps for a living, reflecting his piety, which contrasts with the ruthless ruler image often portrayed.

Divide among historians

• While the destruction of temples under Aurangzeb’s rule is highlighted, some historians note that he made exceptions in granting land and support to places of worship of Hindus and other faiths.
• In ‘Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth,’ historian Audrey Truschke notes the grant given by Aurangzeb to Jangam, a Shaivite group. Truschke also claims that there was a higher proportion of Hindus in Aurangzeb’s administration compared to Akbar, arguing that his actions were often politically driven, not solely religious. 
• In ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (Volumet 2),'' historian Satish Chandra notes that the Mughal ruler commissioned grants to some of the "Vaishnava temples at Vrindavan, to the jogis at Jakhbar in Punjab, to the Nath Panthi jogis in Sarkar Nagaur, and grant of 100 pakka bighas of land to Panth Bharati in pargana Siwana in Rajasthan." He also gave grants to the gurdwara of Guru Ram Das in Dehradun, Chandra states.
• However, historian John F Richards opines that Aurangzeb’s ultimate aim was the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. In his book ‘The Mughal Empire,’ part of The New Cambridge History of India series, Richards states, “Whenever possible the emperor gave out robes of honour, cash gifts, and promotions to converts. It quickly became known that conversion was a sure way to the emperor’s favour.”

Contested legacy

• Aurangzeb’s legacy remains deeply contested, with interpretations of his rule varying between tyranny and pragmatism.
• While his policies contributed to the Mughal Empire’s territorial expansion and economic strength, his religious intolerance and political ruthlessness left lasting scars. As debates over his reign continue to fuel contemporary tensions, his place in history remains as divisive as ever.