EDITORIALS & ARTICLES

October 23, 2024 Current Affairs

CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS

  • During his Nobel prize speech, Gary Ruvkun  highlighted the significance  of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans in his scientific discovery.

Caenorhabditis elegans

  • About
  • They are living transparent nematodes of size approx. 1 mm in length.
  • Biological Characteristics
  • They are Unsegmented pseudocoelomates.
  • Pseudocoelomates have a fluid-filled body cavity which separates the gut from the body wall but it is not lined by mesoderm.
  • They lack respiratory or circulatory systems.
  • Habitat
  • They normally live in soil.
  • Reproduction
  • They are primarily hermaphroditic.
  • As Hermaphroditic animals, they have  both male and female reproductive organs.
  • However, some males have specialised mating tails.
  • Connectome
  • It was the first organism to complete its connectome in 2019.
  • Connectome is the comprehensive map of the brain''s neural connectivity to better understand the structural and functional relationship of the brain.
  • Significance for Research
  • Simple and Manageable
  • C. elegans has only 959 cells and serves as a manageable model organism.
  • Tracking developmental stages is also easy due to its transparency and short lifecycle.
  • Genomic Significance
  • C. elegans was the first genome-sequenced animal in 1998.
  • Much research on the species and availability of genome sequences gives it an advantage over other model organisms like flies and mice.
  • Reproductive Efficiency
  • The worm has the ability to self-fertilise.
  • Its low maintenance requirements.
  • This makes it an ideal subject for research as it is both cost-effective and easy to handle.

Nematodes

  • The nematodes are roundworms or eelworms of the phylum Nematoda. 
  • They inhabit a broad range of environments. 
  • Most species are free-living and feed on microorganisms but many species are also parasitic.
  • The parasitic worms called helminths cause soil-transmitted helminthiases.

Characteristics 

  • Their body is bilaterally symmetrical and the head is radially symmetrical.
  • The mouth has three or six lips with a series of teeth on their inner edges. 
  • An adhesive gland called the caudal gland is often found at the tip of the tail.

Examples:

  • Roundworms, hookworms, and heartworms belong to the phylum Nematoda

CHINA TAIWAN ISSUE AND INDIA

  • China strongly objected to Taiwan''s opening of a new Economic and Cultural Centre (TECC) in Mumbai.

Details

  • China''s objection to Taiwan opening a new Economic and Cultural Centre (TECC) in Mumbai is rooted in its strict "One-China Principle." This principle asserts that there is only one China, with Taiwan being an inseparable part of it, and that the People''s Republic of China (PRC) is the sole legal government of China. 

Why Taiwan Opened TECC in Mumbai?

  • The TECC in Mumbai is Taiwan’s third office in India, following those in New Delhi and Chennai. These offices are part of Taiwan’s strategy to strengthen economic and cultural ties with India.
  • The center promote cultural exchanges and provide visa services, acting like embassies without formal diplomatic recognition, they promote Taiwanese culture and strengthen economic partnerships.
  • With Taiwan being a major hub for technology and semiconductors, the TECC aims to enhance trade and investment between the two regions. Bilateral trade between Taiwan and India has grown significantly, from $2 billion in 2006 to $8.9 billion in 2021.
  • Taiwan’s "New Southbound Policy" aims to reduce its economic dependence on China by strengthening ties with South and Southeast Asian countries, including India.

Why has China objected?

  • China views Taiwan''s international engagements as attempts to assert its independence. By opening a TECC, Taiwan is seen as enhancing its official presence abroad, which challenges China’s claim over Taiwan.
  • China has reminded India of its commitment to the One-China Principle, which it claims is essential for stable Sino-Indian relations. China believes that any official interaction between Taiwan and India undermines this principle.
  • The roots of this tension go back to the Chinese Civil War in the early 20th century. After the war, Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists retreated to Taiwan, claiming it as the legitimate government of China, while the Communists established the People''s Republic of China (PRC). China always argues that any recognition of Taiwan is a challenge for its sovereignty.

Geography of Taiwan 

  • Taiwan is located in the East China Sea, between China, Japan, and the Philippines. This strategic location makes Taiwan an important player in the East and Southeast Asia region.
  • The Taiwan Strait is one of the busiest waterways in the world, it is essential for regional trade, therefore, any conflict in this area could disrupt global trade routes; especially affecting Southeast Asian economies.

Political Status

  • Since 1949, after the Chinese Civil War, Taiwan has functioned independently. The Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) retreated to Taiwan after being defeated by the Communist Party of China.
  • Taiwan operates as a separate nation with its own government, president, military, and constitution. However, China views Taiwan as a breakaway province and insists on the “One-China Policy.”

International Recognition

  • Only 11 countries officially recognize Taiwan as a sovereign state, including the United States, which acknowledges the One-China Policy but maintains unofficial relations with Taiwan.
  • Despite limited official recognition, many countries are concerned about potential conflict between China and Taiwan due to its implications for global trade, especially in the electronics industry where Taiwan is a key player.

China-Taiwan Relations

  • The conflict traces back to the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949). After the Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, won the war, the defeated Nationalist Party established a separate government in Taiwan. China asserts that there is only one China and Taiwan is part of it. Taiwan, however, operates independently with its own government and military.
  • China frequently conducts military drills near Taiwan, showing its military capabilities and signaling its willingness to use force if necessary. Taiwan seeks international recognition and support, however, China pressures countries and international organizations to diplomatically isolate Taiwan.

India and the China-Taiwan  issues

India and the China-Taiwan  issues

  • Diplomatic Stance
  • India does not officially recognize Taiwan as a separate country due to its commitment to the One-China Policy, however, India maintains informal relations with Taiwan. Growing tensions between India and China, especially after the 2020 Galwan Valley clashes, have led India to reconsider its strategic partnerships, including with Taiwan.
  • Economic Relations
  • Trade between India and Taiwan has been growing. In 2023, total bilateral trade was $8.224 billion, with Taiwan exporting $6.013 billion and India importing $2.211 billion. Taiwanese companies have invested in various sectors in India, including IT, electronics, and manufacturing.

Challenges and Way Forward

  • India’s commitment to the One-China Policy limits the scope of its official engagement with Taiwan. Any clear support for Taiwan could provoke a strong reaction from China. India must balance its relations with both China and Taiwan to avoid regional conflict and maintain stability.
  • Strengthening economic ties with Taiwan could provide India the technical advancements and investment opportunities, collaborating on regional security issues can help India to counterbalance China’s growing influence in the Indo-Pacific region.

Conclusion

  • The Indian approach towards the China-Taiwan issue needs to be a balance of maintaining its commitment to the One-China Policy while exploring economic and strategic opportunities with Taiwan.

 Economic Freedom of the World Report

Recently, The Fraser Institute published the Economic Freedom of the World 2024 Annual Report 

  • The report  measures the degree to which people in 165 jurisdictions around the globe are allowed to make their own economic choices.
  • Cornerstones of Economic Freedom: Personal choice, Voluntary exchange, Freedom to enter markets and compete, and Security of the person and Privately-owned property. 
  • Ranking: The most-economically free jurisdictions were:
  • Hong Kong (1st)
  • Singapore (2nd), Switzerland (3rd), New Zealand (4th), the United States (5th), Denmark and Ireland (tied for 6th), Canada (8th), and Australia and Luxembourg (tied for 9th).
  • India is ranked 84th.
  • India is closely followed by Nepal in 86th place and Bhutan at 98th.
  • China ranks 104th, while Sri Lanka is positioned at 123rd. 
  • Bangladesh occupies 127th, and Pakistan is ranked 134th.

Hornets

  • A species of hornet can tolerate liquor without any side effects, at levels higher than any known animal.

wasp hornets

  • About
  • They are a species of wasps, which live in large, highly organized colonies.
  • They belong to the insect family Vespidae, which contains all species of hornets as well as wasps like yellow jackets, potter wasps, paper wasps, and pollen wasps.
  • Scientific Name
  • Vespa orientalis
  • Diet
  • They eat nectar and ripe fruits. 
  • Ripe fruits especially include grapes, which naturally ferment in their body to produce ethanol.
  • Distribution
  • They are typically found in Asia, Europe, Africa and North America.
  • The northern giant hornet, or Asian giant hornet is native to Asia and it is the largest known wasp species in the world.
  • Features
  • Alcohol toleration
  • They can tolerate ethanol levels up to 80 per cent higher than any known animal.
  • They show no adverse effects on behaviour or lifespan, even at high ethanol concentrations.
  • While other animals such as fruit flies and tree shrews cannot tolerate more than 4% ethanol.
  • High alcohol tolerance provides them a competitive edge in accessing nutrient-rich fermented foods.
  • Mutualistic Relationship
  • Hornets also have a mutualistic relationship with yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae which aids both species in survival.
  • Venom
  • They release a higher amount of venom per sting than any other stinging insect.
  • How do they tolerate high ethanol concentrations?
  • Hornets have two to four copies of a specific gene that produces NADP+, which in turn helps break down alcohol.
  • NADP+ is converted to NADPH in the photosynthesis process, due to which the former is less abundant in plants.
  • But in Hornets, due to the abundance of NADP+, they can tolerate high ethanol concentrations.
  • NADP, NADP+  and NADPH
  • NADP is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate molecules coenzyme that transfers electrons in anabolic activities and NADPH is the reduced form of NADP with a hydrogen atom added to it.
  • While NADP+ is the oxidized form of NADP.
  • NADP+ is converted to NADPH in the photosynthesis process when the energy from the sun extracts electrons from water.

India Launches Fourth Nuclear Submarine

  • India has recently achieved a significant milestone in its defense capabilities with the launch of its fourth nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), codenamed S4. This development underscores India’s commitment to enhancing its maritime security and strategic deterrence, particularly amidst rising geopolitical tensions in the Indo-Pacific region.

Overview of the Launch

  •  The low profile ceremony in which India announced this event symbolises its strategic way of pushing its defence advancements. Defence Minister Rajnath Singh had inaugurated a Very Low Frequency (VLF) naval communication station for ensuring submarine communication capabilities critical to operational effectiveness in underwater warfare at the site.
  • Significance of S4: The S4 is one of India’s second generation of SSBNs which is intended to enhance India’s nuclear deterrence capabilities. The commission comes after earlier submarines INS Arihant and INS Arihant, which are now operational in deep sea patrols. Joining the S4, India is sporting K-4 ballistic missiles, which are capable of hitting targets at a distance of 3,500 kilometres.

Submarine

Name/Class

Missile Type

Missile Range

Status

S1

INS Chakra

Not known

Not known

First leased nuclear submarine

S2

INS Arihant

K-15 ballistic missile

750 km

On deep sea patrol

S3

INS Arighaat

K-4 ballistic missile

3,500 km

Commissioned in August 2024, on deep sea patrol

S4

INS Aridhaman

K-4 ballistic missile

3,500 km

To be commissioned in 2025

INS Aridhaman: It is a stretched variant of the INS Arihant, with an estimated additional displacement of 1,000 tons compared to the earlier Arihant class submarines. The increased displacement enhances the vessel’s capacity to accommodate more Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), providing greater fireworks and extending India’s second-strike capability. 

The submarine is expected to be equipped with a combination of longer-range K-4 missiles (with a range of 3,500 km) and potentially the newer K-5 missiles, which are under development and rumored to have a range exceeding 5,000 km.

Technical Specifications

Design and Capabilities

  • Displacement: It is heavier than the previous generation with approximately 7,000 tons.
  • Indigenous Content: The S4 has nearly 75 percent Indian content, highlighting India’s increasing self reliance in the Make in India defense manufacturing.
  • Missile Capacity: Its operational flexibility and deterrent capability facilitated by a projected carriage of up to 12 K-15 SLBMs or 4 K-4 missiles.
  • Advanced Features: The S4 offers a high performing 83MW Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) for greater endurance and operation flexibility. With this technological advance India occupies a pole position among nations that can effectively deploy nuclear powered submarines.

Strategic Implications

  • Enhancing Deterrence: The launch of the S4 submarine is a majorerequisite in reinforcing India’s nuclear triad, comprising the land based missiles, air dropped weapons and sea based platforms. Such a capability is a credible second-strike option against other potential adversaries adding to national security.
  • Geopolitical Context: It is particularly timely to launch now, as tensions on China’s naval march in the Indo-Pacific are rising. With an aim to assert its presence and counterbalance regional threats, India is progressing its submarine fleet. The move is part of a defense strategy shift toward maritime security and deterring adversaries such as China, to strengthen the weaker country’s relief vision .

Ballistic missile submarine (SSBN)

  • It is a submarine capable of deploying submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) with nuclear warheads.
  • These submarines became a major weapon system in the Cold War because of their nuclear deterrence capability. 
  • They can fire missiles thousands of kilometers from their targets, and acoustic quieting makes them difficult to detect (see acoustic signature), thus making them a survivable deterrent in the event of a first strike and a key element of the mutually assured destruction policy of nuclear deterrence. 
  • The deployment of ballistic missile submarines is dominated by the United States and Russia (following the collapse of the Soviet Union). 
  • In fact, 70 % of nuclear warheads in the USA are carried by SSBN submarines.

Conclusion

  • The launch of India’s fourth nuclear submarine marks a pivotal moment in the country’s strategic military advancements. As India continues to enhance its underwater capabilities through indigenous development and technological innovation, it solidifies its position as a formidable maritime power in the Indo-Pacific region. This development not only bolsters national security but also contributes to regional stability amidst evolving geopolitical dynamics.

 Orchids

  •   A new species of orchid, called Crepidium assamicum, was discovered in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park in Assam.

Crepidium assamicum

  • About
  • It is a new species of orchid discovered in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park in Assam.
  • Their numbers are approximately 500–600 individuals in the wild.
  • Scientific Name
  • Crepidium assamicum
  • Characteristics
  • They have a large flower cover and blooming period from July to August.
  • Their flowers have minimal or no fragrance.
  • Habitat
  • These species thrive in open grasslands and they do not prefer dense forests.
  • Distribution
  • These orchids are confined to the open grassland near the riverbank of Dibru-Soikhowa river  in Assam.
  • Conservation Status
  • They have been provisionally assessed as Near Threatened per IUCN Red List of endangered species in 2024.

Orchids 

  • Orchids are non woody perennial plants of family Orchidaceae.
  • It has over 25,000 species and nearly 1,000 genera.
  • They are predominantly found in tropical regions. 
  • They are categorised into three life types: 
  • (1) epiphytic, 
  • (2) terrestrial and 
  • (3) mycoheterotrophic.

Morphology of Orchids

Flowers

  • Orchid flowers have unique and differing structural characteristics. These are:
  • They have pollinia, which are masses of pollen that facilitate specific pollination strategies.
  • The stamens and pistil are fused to form a column. This distinguishes orchids from other flowering plants.
  • They have a Lip or Labellum, which is a specialized petal that serves as a landing platform for pollinators.

Seed 

  • Seeds of Orchid are tiny and lack an endosperm. They depend on mycorrhizal fungi for germination and uptake of nutrients.

Habitat

  • Orchids survive in diverse environments, from sea level to elevations of 4,600 metres. 

Geographical Distribution

  • They are found in tropical montane forests, temperate zones, and even in arid regions.

Orchids in India:

  • As per the Botanical Survey of India, Orchids of 1,256 species or taxa are found in India.
  • Out of total orchids, about 760 species or 60% are epiphytic, 447 are terrestrial and 43 are mycoheterotrophic in India
  • About 400 species of orchids are endemic to India and about one-third of them are endemic species found in Western Ghats.
  • The Western Ghats feature a high endemism of orchids, but north-east India has the highest species concentration.
  • There are 612 orchid species known to exist in Arunachal Pradesh, which is followed by Sikkim (560) and West Bengal.
  • In terms of orchid species, the Himalayan zone is the most abundant of India''s ten biogeographic zones, followed by the Northeast, the Western Ghats, the Deccan plateau, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Symbiotic Relationships

  • Many orchids in many cases form mutualistic relationships with fungi, which helps orchids in their nutrient absorption and growth.

Pollination and Reproductive Strategies

  • The flower structures of orchids are adapted to attract particular pollinators, which enhances their reproductive success.
  • The complex flowering structure facilitates the transfer of pollinia to visiting insects to ensure effective cross-pollination.

Economic Importance

  • Vanilla Production: The most notable economic product which is derived from orchids is vanilla. It is sourced from Vanilla planifolia orchids and related species.
  • Traditional Uses: Traditionally Orchids have various applications in folk medicine, culinary products, and as natural adhesives.

SPECIES IN NEWS : ANGUICULUS DICAPRIOI, TENKANA JAYAMANGALI, NILGIRI TIT

  • The Scientists have found a new species of snake in the Western Himalayas, which have been named Anguiculus dicaprioi after Hollywood star Leonardo Di Caprio.

Anguiculus dicaprioi

  • About
  • It is a new species of snake discovered in the Eastern Himalayas.
  • Anguiculus is the Latin word meaning small snake.
  • The term“dicaprioi” is a patronym to honour Leonardo DiCaprio, who has actively worked to create awareness about increased biodiversity loss, and human health issues due to the pollution explosion.

        Family

  • It is a member of the Colubridae, which is the largest family of snakes on the planet having 304 genera and 1,938 species in it.
  • Almost two-thirds of all living snakes in the world comprise Colubridae.
  • Distribution
  • They are found in Chamba, Kullu and Shimla regions of Himachal Pradesh, Nainital district in Uttarakhand  and Chitwan National Park in Nepal.
  • Features
  • They have no limbs, external ears and eyelids.
  • They only have one functional lung, and a long, slender body. 
  • They have a complete and robust skull.
  • Significance
  • The eastern part of the Himalayas generally harbours more diversity than the western part. 
  • However, the findings suggest that the biota of the Western Himalayas is distinct and they are not merely a subset of the East Himalayan biota.
  • Conservation status 
  • Data Deficient

  Tenkana jayamangali

About

They are a new species of Ground-dwelling jumping spider.

Morphological Features

Males have a colour pattern which resembles a panda face.

They shave a brownish abdomen.

Females are grey with distinct colour patterns.

Habitat

They prefer the shaded short grasses with dry leaf litter in closed areas and in open areas, they prefer sunny areas with rocky outcrops.

They mostly prefer marshes, forests, agricultural lands, etc.

Distribution

They are currently endemic to southern India. They are mostly sighted in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Documented Species

Three species in the genus Tenkana have been discovered so far.

These are: Tenkana jayamangali, Tenkana arkavathi, Tenkana manu.

Ecological Role

They play a role in local ecosystems as a predator

 Nilgiri tit

Category

  • Details
  • About
  • This is a rare and endemic butterfly species.
  • It is recorded for the first time using Eulophia epidendraea as a host near the Kallar horticultural garden.
  • Eulophia epidendraea is a terrestrial orchid found on rocky slopes in humid areas and they are associated with various grasses.
  • Scientific Name
  • Hypolycaena nilgirica
  • Habitat 
  • They live on the surface of terrestrial orchids and lay eggs on the inflorescence of Eulophia epidendraea.
  • Distribution
  • They are typically found in the western Ghats surrounding Nilgiris and in Sri Lanka.
  • It was first described in 1884 from Coonoor, Nilgiris.
  • Conservation Status
  • They are classified under Schedule II of the Wildlife Protection Act.

SPRAYING DIAMOND DUST TO COOL EARTH

  • A new study has argued that spraying millions of tonnes of diamond dust in the Earth’s upper atmosphere every year could help cool down the Earth and combat global warming.
  • Aspect
  • Details
  • Proposal
  • Injecting five million tons of diamond dust annually into the stratosphere to cool the Earth.
  • Potential Temperature Reduction
  • 1.6 degrees Celsius
  • Inspiration
  • Past volcanic eruptions caused global cooling by releasing particles into the atmosphere.
  • Concept
  • Diamond dust in the stratosphere would reflect sunlight, reducing heat on Earth.
  • Geoengineering Context
  • Similar to methods like ocean iron dumping and space mirrors to fight global warming.
  • Method
  • Solar geoengineering – Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)
  • Historical Example
  • 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption cooled Earth by 0.5 degrees for several years.
  • Problems with Sulfur Dioxide
  • Leads to sulfuric acid rain, damages ozone layer, disrupts weather and climate patterns.
  • Diamond Dust Findings
  • Reflects radiation effectively, remains airborne longer, doesn’t produce acid rain.
  • Cooling Effect
  • Injecting 5 million tons of diamond dust annually could reduce global temperature by 1.6°C.
  • Cost of Diamond Dust
  • $200 trillion by 2100, 2,400 times more expensive than sulfur dioxide.
  • Alternative Option
  • Sulfur dioxide – cheaper but has harmful environmental impacts.

 Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)

  • It is a proposed method of solar geoengineering (or solar radiation modification) to reduce global warming. This would introduce aerosols into the stratosphere to create a cooling effect via global dimming and increased albedo, which occurs naturally from volcanic winter. 
  • It appears that stratospheric aerosol injection, at a moderate intensity, could counter most changes to temperature and precipitation, take effect rapidly, have low direct implementation costs, and be reversible in its direct climatic effects.
  • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that it "is the most-researched [solar geoengineering] method that it could limit warming to below 1.5 °C (2.7 °F).

Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)

  • Stratospheric Aerosol Intervention (SAI), also known as Stratospheric Aerosol Injection, is a geoengineering or climate engineering approach that uses tiny reflective particles or aerosols to reflect sunlight into space in order to cool the planet and reverse or stop global warming.
  • It aims to mimic the cooling effects of volcanic eruptions by injecting sulfur dioxide (SO2) directly into the stratosphere, where it forms sunlight-reflecting sulfate aerosols. 
    • The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, often cited as the inspiration for this concept, deposited massive amounts of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere.
    • This aerosol layer was reported to have lowered average temperatures around the world by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) over the following few years. 
  • It is believed that as more radiation is scattered in the stratosphere by aerosols, less would be absorbed by the troposphere, the lower level of the atmosphere where weather primarily occurs.
  • The production of such an artificial aerosol layer could be accomplished by shooting sulfur particles into the stratosphere with cannons or dispersing them from balloons or other aircraft.

Aerosols

  • They are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in air or a gas.
  • Aerosols can be natural, such as fog or gas from volcanic eruptions, or artificial, such as smoke from burning fossil fuels.
  • Aerosol particles are either emitted directly into the atmosphere (primary aerosols) or produced in the atmosphere from precursor gases (secondary aerosols).
  • Aerosol particles are tiny, but numerous, and often comprise a number of inorganic and organic substances.
  • True aerosol particles range in diameter from a few millimicrometres to about 1 micrometre (equal to 10-4 cm). 
  • Particles with a diameter of less than 0.1 micrometre are sometimes referred to as Aitken nuclei.
  • Visible forms of atmospheric aerosol plumes include smoke, smog, haze, and dust.

Stratosphere

  • It is the layer of Earth’s atmosphere lying between the troposphere and the mesosphere. 
  • The stratosphere extends from the tropopause at about 10 to 17 km (about 6 to 11 miles) altitude to its upper boundary (the stratopause) at about 50 km (30 miles).
  • It’s characterized by a highly stable temperature gradient that cools from top to bottom.
  • It also contains the ozone layer.
  • Commercial jet aircraft fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid turbulence and increased atmospheric drag, which are common in the troposphere below.
  • This layer holds 19 percent of the atmosphere''s gases but very little water vapor.

Diamond:

  • Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. Diamond as a form of carbon is a tasteless, odourless, strong, brittle solid, colourless in pure form, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. 
  • Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure, but diamond is metastable and converts to it at a negligible rate under those conditions. 
  • Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools. 

 Stratosphere:

  • It is the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is composed of stratified temperature zones, with the warmer layers of air located higher (closer to outer space) and the cooler layers lower (closer to the planetary surface of the Earth).

 Ocean Iron Dumping: 

  • Ocean iron fertilization is an example of a geoengineering technique that involves intentional introduction of iron-rich deposits into oceans, and is aimed to enhance biological productivity of organisms in ocean waters in order to increase carbon dioxide (CO 2) uptake from the atmosphere.

Space Mirrors:

  • Space mirrors are satellites that are designed to change the amount of solar radiation that impacts the Earth as a form of climate engineering. The concept was first theorized in 1923 by physicist Hermann Oberth and later developed in the 1980s by other scientists.
  • Space mirrors can be used to increase or decrease the amount of solar energy that reaches a specific point of the earth for various purposes. They have been theorized as a method of solar geoengineering by creating a space sunshade to deflect sunlight and counter global warming.






POSTED ON 23-10-2024 BY ADMIN
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