1. K. Merton build on the reference group theory on the basis of Samuel Stouffer’s findings that soldiers’ feelings of relative deprivation were more related to the living standards of the groups they compared themselves to than their actual hardships.

Reference group refers to group to which the individuals refer to evaluate their status, role performance, ambitions, achievement. Individuals belong to multiple groups in society. The group to which individual belong referred as membership group, the group to which individuals does not belong to referred as non-membership group. People generally consider the non- membership groups as reference group, they feel relatively deprived and goes for anticipatory socialization .and depending upon whether the reference group is open or closed anticipatory socialization leads to mobility or marginalisation respectively.

Application of reference group model

• The reference group theory helps us to understand in detail the society in context of its openness and closeness and hence the scope of mobility in society can be understood.
• For example, Louis Dumont has referred the Indian society as homo hierarchicus and called Indian caste system as closed. Whereas the concept of Sanskritization given by M N Srinivas used reference group theory to explain the chances of mobility in closed society.
• Reference group theory provides the mechanisms of mobility and growth in society. It can help providing aspirations to people to go for anticipatory socialization and achieve mobility.
• Reference groups contribute to individuals’ socialization processes and help shape their identities. By comparing themselves to their reference groups, individuals develop a sense of self and learn appropriate behaviours, values, and norms.
• Reference groups can also influence individuals to engage in deviant or delinquent behaviour. Understanding the dynamics of reference groups can help in developing interventions and programs to prevent or address such behaviours.
• Reference group theory is applied in the field of information studies to understand how individuals seek, evaluate, and use information based on the standards and norms of their reference group. This understanding can help in designing more effective information services and resources.

Reference group theory: not universally applicable

• Reference group theory is not universally applicable but its relevance is limited in its scope depending upon various contexts
• Variability in individuals’ psychological and social traits has a significant impact on how they engage with reference groups. The extent to which reference groups influence individuals varies based on their personality, values, and life experiences. This diversity among individuals challenges the universality of reference group theory.
• The reference group theory can- not be applied in terms of people who does not feel relative deprivation or the societies which are isolated. For example, the isolated tribes in many areas are not even aware about the non- membership groups due to limited or no interaction.
• The application of reference theory becomes limited in application if resources are not well placed for anticipatory socialization. In such scenarios the relative deprivation does not conclude in anticipatory socialization. The theory of culture of poverty by Oscar Lewis explain such behaviour where anticipatory socialization is not applicable.
• Even the concept of Sanskritization as anticipatory socialization is limited in its scope and it is criticised for the same reason.

Merton himself gave the concept of middle range theories and rejected the universal aspect of classical functionalism and shifted the paradigm towards limited application of any concept or theory. The relevance and impact of reference groups is also context-dependent. The theory’s applicability may differ depending on the specific situation or decisions being considered.