What are the definitional problems involved in identifying tribes in India? Discuss the main obstacles to tribal development in India. 20 Marks (UPSC CSE Mains 2024 - Sociology, Paper 1)
The identification and development of tribes in India present complex sociological and administrative challenges, rooted in historical, cultural, and political factors. The term “tribe” itself is contested, with anthropologists like Verrier Elwin highlighting the fluidity of tribal identities and the dangers of stereotyping.
Definitional problems in identifying tribes
- Heterogeneity:Indian tribes vary greatly in language, culture, and socioeconomic status, making a uniform definition difficult.
- Colonial legacy:The concept of “tribe” has colonial origins, often used to signify “primitive” societies. Scholars like G.S. Ghurye criticized this classification for perpetuating stereotypes.
- Criteria ambiguity:The Constitution lists Scheduled Tribes but provides no clear identification criteria. The Lokur Committee (1965) suggested subjective and outdated criteria like primitive traits and geographical isolation.
- Socioeconomic changes:Modernization has altered traditional tribal lifestyles, complicating classification.
DN Majumdar defines a tribe as a social group with:
- Territorial affiliation,
- United in language or dialect,
- Endogamous,
- With no specialisation of functions,
- Ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise,
- Recognising social distance with other tribes or castes without any social stigma,
- Following tribal traditions, beliefs and customs,
- Illiberal to naturalisation of ideas from alien sources,
- Conscious of ethnic homogeneity and territorial integration.
The definitional problems arise because exceptions (in large numbers) can be found to almost all of these criteria of defining a tribe. Tribal societies are often marked by social differentiation rather than stratification. However, increasing cultural contact with caste society has introduced elements of stratification as well.
Obstacles to tribal development
Tribals in India face a wide range of problems, some of which are:
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Problems
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Description
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Examples
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Land rights and displacement
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- Many tribal communities have been displaced from their traditional lands due to development projects, mining, and other activities.
- This has led to losing their livelihoods, homes, and cultural heritage.
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- Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat has displaced thousands of tribal people from their ancestral lands.
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Exploitation and marginalization
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- They are often exploited and marginalized by powerful groups, such as government officials, landlords, and businessmen.
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- Adivasi population in the state of Odisha have been facing exploitation by the mining companies, who have taken over their land and resources.
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Lack of education and healthcare
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- They have limited access to education and healthcare, which has a negative impact on their overall well-being and development.
- Lot of health issues, such as malnutrition, lack of access to proper health care, and a high incidence of infectious diseases.
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- The literacy rate among the tribal population is lower compared to the national average and the healthcare facilities in tribal areas are inadequate.
- As per census 2011 the literacy rate was 59%.
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Loss of culture and tradition
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- Lost their traditional customs, languages, and arts due to modernization and the erosion of their traditional way of life.
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- Due to impact of globalization and modernization traditional practices and rituals of the Great Andamanese tribes are on the verge of extinction.
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Economic marginalization
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- Engaged in traditional forms of livelihoods, such as agriculture, forestry, and hunting, which are becoming less viable in the face of modernization and globalization.
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- The traditional livelihoods of the Munda tribes in Jharkhand are under threat due to the decline in the availability of forest resources and the impact of mining.
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Political marginalization
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- They are not well represented in the political process and their voices are not heard in the policy-making process.
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- Tribal communities of the Northeast region of India have not had a fair representation in the political process and their issues are not fully addressed by the government.
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Hence addressing definitional ambiguities and development obstacles requires nuanced policies that respect tribal diversity while empowering communities. Enhancing the well-being of tribal communities in India will require a comprehensive and holistic approach that addresses the multiple and interconnected challenges that they face.
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