1. Plastics

• The word plastic is derived from the Greek word plastikos, meaning “capable of being shaped or moulded.”
• Plastic refers to a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient with their defining quality being their plasticity – the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation in response to applied forces. 
  • This makes them extremely adaptable, capable of being shaped as per requirement.
• Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum. 
• However, recently, variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives have also emerged.
• Around 70 per cent of global plastic production is concentrated in six major polymer types – referred collectively as commodity plastics. 
  • These include: Polyethylene terephthalate or PET, High-density polyethylene or HDPE, Polyvinyl chloride or PVC, Low-density polyethylene or LDPE, Polypropylene or PP, and Polystyrene or PS. 
  • Each of these have different properties and can be identified by their resin identification code (RIC) denoted by symbols found on plastic products.

Types of Plastics

Overall, there are about 45 unique types of plastics and each type has dozens of different variations. Manufacturers can change the physical structure just slightly to benefit the application for which they are using it. When manufacturers change or modify things like the molecular weight distribution, the density, or the melt indices, they alter the effectiveness and create plastics with many specific properties - and therefore many different uses. There are two main types of plastics: thermoset plastics and thermoplastics.

Thermoplastics

• Thermoplastics may take on amorphous or crystalline structures.
• In thermoplastics the long chain molecules exist in the form of linear bonding but are also bonded to each other by secondary Van Der Waals forces (secondary bonds).
• At a high enough heat the excitation of the molecular chains is enough to overcome this binding force and they are free to move over one another thereby creating a viscous liquid. The secondary bonds can be envisaged to have melted. The glass transition (Tg) temperature can be envisaged as the temperature at which the secondary bonds melt.
• When the polymer is cooled the secondary forces once again dominate and the molecular chains revert back to a restricted state. This means that thermoplastics can be melted and remelted allowing them to be easily recycled.

Thermosets

• In thermosetting plastics the long chain molecules exist in an amorphous network with cross-linked bonding. This means that the long molecular chains are attached to each other by covalent bonds. The formation of these cross-links is known as curing.
• Cross-linking sets the molecular chains in place and therefore means that a thermosetting plastic cannot be remelted but will instead decompose upon being heated to a temperature above the Tg.
• Cross-linking inhibits molecular arrangement into an ordered crystalline structure meaning that thermosetting polymers only exist in the amorphous state.

Elastosmers

• In elastomers the long molecular chains exist in the form of amorphous linear bonding with occasional cross-linking.
• At room temperature the level of excitation of the chains has already overcome the secondary Van Der Waals bonds, however, the cross-links that exist in the structure act to revert the elastomer back to its original form following deformation.

Types of Plastics

1 – Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE or Polyester)

• PET is also known as a wrinkle-free fiber. It’s different from the plastic bag that we commonly see at the supermarket. PET is mostly used for food and drink packaging purposes due to its strong ability to prevent oxygen from getting in and spoiling the product inside. It also helps to keep the carbon dioxide in carbonated drinks from getting out.
• Although PET is most likely to be picked up by recycling programs, this type of plastic contains antimony trioxide—a matter that is considered as a carcinogen—capable of causing cancer in a living tissue.
• The longer a liquid is left in a PET container the greater the potential for the release of the antimony. Warm temperatures inside cars, garages, and enclosed storage could also increase the release of the hazardous matter.

2 – High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

• Also known as HDPE or LDPE, it is one of the most common forms of plastics. New formations of it make it possible for this plastic to be flat. Its initial uses were for electrical wires but it is now found in many disposable products, including gloves and garbage bags. It is also used in other film applications such as wraps, as well as in bottles.
• Quite special compared to the other types, HDPE has long virtually unbranched polymer chains which makes them really dense and thus, stronger and thicker from PET.HDPE is commonly used as the grocery bag, opaque milk, juice container, shampoo bottles, and medicine bottle.
• Not only recyclable, HDPE is relatively more stable than PET. It is considered as a safer option for food and drinks use, although some studies have shown that it can leach estrogen-mimicking additive chemicals that could disrupt human’s hormonal system when exposed to ultraviolet light.

3 – Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

• Commonly known as Saran, this plastic is used in wraps to cover food. It is impermeable to odors from food and can be drawn into various films.
• PVC is typically used in toys, blister wrap, cling wrap, detergent bottles, loose-leaf binders, blood bags and medical tubing. PVC or vinyl used to be the second most widely used plastic resin in the world (after polyethylene), before the manufacture and disposal process of PVC has been declared as the cause of serious health risks and environmental pollution issues.
• In the term of toxicity, PVC is considered as the most hazardous plastic. The use of it may leach a variety of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, lead, dioxins, mercury, and cadmium.
• Several of the chemicals mentioned may cause cancer; it could also cause allergic symptoms in children and disrupt the human’s hormonal system. PVS is also rarely accepted by recycling programs.

4 – Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

• As said before, Polyethylenes are the most used family of plastics in the world. This type of plastic has the simplest plastic polymer chemical structure, making it very easy and very cheap to process.
• LDPE polymers have significant chain branching including long side chains making it less dense and less crystalline (structurally ordered) and thus a generally thinner more flexible form of polyethylene.
• LDPE is mostly used for bags (grocery, dry cleaning, bread, frozen food bags, newspapers, garbage), plastic wraps; coatings for paper milk cartons and hot & cold beverage cups; some squeezable bottles (honey, mustard), food storage containers, container lids. Also used for wire and cable covering.
• Although some studies have shown that LDPE could also cause unhealthy hormonal effects in humans, LDPE is considered as a safer plastic option for food and drink use. Unfortunately, this type of plastic is quite difficult to be recycled.

5 – Polypropylene (PP)

• Stiffer and more resistant to heat, PP is widely used for hot food containers. Its strength quality is somewhere between LDPE and HDPE. Besides in thermal vests, and car parts, PP is also included in the disposable diaper and sanitary pad liners.
• Same as LDPE, PP is considered a safer plastic option for food and drink use. And although it bears all those amazing qualities, PP isn’t quite recyclable and could also cause asthma and hormone disruption in human.

6 – Polystyrene (PS)

• Commonly known as Styrofoam, it is one of the less ideal options today for environmental reasons. However, it is very lightweight, easy to mold and it works as an insulator. That is why it is heavily used in furniture, cabinetry, glasses and other impact-resistant surfaces. It is also commonly added with a blowing agent to create foam insulation.
• Polystyrene (PS) is the styrofoam we all commonly used for food containers, egg cartons, disposable cups and bowls, packaging, and also bike helmet.
• When exposed with hot and oily food, PS could leach styrene that is considered as brain and nervous system toxicant. It could also affect genes, lungs, liver, and immune system. On top of all of those risks, PS has a low recycling rate.

7 – Other

• Number 7 is for all plastics other than those identified by number 1-6 and also plastics that may be layered or mixed with other types of plastics, such as bioplastics.
• Polycarbonate (PC) is the most common plastic in this category, isn’t used as much in recent years due to it being associated with bisphenol A (BPA).  PC is also known by various name: Lexan, Makrolon, and Makroclear.
• PC is typically used for baby bottles, sippy cups, water bottles, water gallon, metal food can liner,  ketchup container, and dental sealants. Due to its toxicity, several countries have banned the use of PC for baby bottles and infant formula packaging.
• The BPA that contained inside PC have been linked to numerous health problems including chromosome damage in female ovaries, decreased sperm production in males, early onset of puberty, and various behavioural changes.
• It has also been linked to altered immune function, sex reversal in frogs, impaired brain and neurological functions, cardiovascular system damage, adult-onset (Type II) diabetes, obesity, resistance to chemotherapy, increased risk of breast cancer, prostate cancer, infertility, and metabolic disorders.
• It has very low recycle rate quality.

Concerns 

• Plastic pollution – It includes plastic waste that is mismanaged (e.g. open-burned and dumped in uncontrolled dumpsites) and leakage and accumulation of plastic objects and particles that can adversely affect humans and the living and non-living environment
• Slow decomposition rate: Plastics are hard to eradicate due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems.
  • Decomposition rate refers to the rate at which a material breaks down into its constituent parts through chemical processes – plastics are remarkably durable in this sense. 
• Microplastics: Plastics break down into their smaller units called microplastics – officially defined as plastics less than five millimetres in diameter. 
  • These microplastics find their way across the planet, from the depths of the Pacific Ocean to the heights of the Himalayas.
  • According to the most recent global estimates, an average human consumes at least 50,000 microplastic particles annually due to contamination of the food chain, potable water, and air.
• Effect on Human Health: Notably, microplastics contain a number of toxic chemicals which pose severe risks to human health. The biggest health risk associated is with the chemical BPA or Bisphenol A , which is used to harden the plastic. 
  • BPA contaminates food and drinks, causing alterations in liver function, insulin resistance, foetal development in pregnant women, the reproductive system and brain function.
• Marine pollution: The largest collection of plastics and microplastics in the ocean is in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch – a collection of marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean. Also known as the trash vortex, it is located between California and Japan, and formed due to converging ocean currents.
  • As per estimates, the GPGP covers a surface area of 1.6 million sq km– roughly half the size of India! There are other, smaller such garbage patches in other oceans.
  • It floats on the sea surface and ends up clogging the marine animals.
• Plastisphere: Plastics are becoming part of the Earth’s fossil record and a marker of the Anthropocene, our current geological era. They have even given their name to a new marine microbial habitat called the “plastisphere”.
  • Anthropocene is defined as a period of time during which human activities have impacted the environment enough to constitute a distinct geological change.
• Climate change: Plastic, which is a petroleum product, also contributes to global warming. If plastic waste is incinerated, it releases  toxic fumes and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thereby increasing carbon emissions.
• Tourism and Economy: Plastic waste damages the aesthetic value of tourist destinations, leading to decreased tourism-related incomes and major economic costs related to the cleaning and maintenance of the sites.

Global Efforts To Tackle it

• The 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter (or the London Convention)
• The 1996 Protocol to the London Convention (the London Protocol)
• The 1978 Protocol to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
• The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) considers plastic marine debris and its ability to transport harmful substances as one of the main emerging issues affecting the environment.
• GloLitter Partnerships (GLP): It is a project launched by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and initial funding from the Government of Norway.
• Clean Seas Campaign:
  • The United Nations Environment Programme launched the Clean Seas Campaign in 2017
  • Aim:  The goal was to galvanize a global movement to turn the tide on plastic by reducing the use of unnecessary, avoidable and problematic plastics including single-use plastics and phasing out intentionally added microplastics. 
• Greenpeace: It is an environmental NGO that is dedicated to conserving the oceans and marine life across the globe. Its grassroots efforts have resulted in the ban of destructive fishing practices, companies changing their fishing policies, and the creation of whale sanctuaries.
• United Nations resolution: 124 countries which are party to the United Nations Environment Assembly including India signed a resolution to draw up an agreement which will in the future make it legally binding for the signatories to address the full life of plastics from production to disposal, to end plastic pollution.

India’s Efforts In Tackling Plastic Waste

• Ban on single-use plastics: India has banned the production, use, and sale of single-use plastics such as bags, cups, plates, cutlery, and straws in many states.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): The Indian government has implemented EPR, making plastic manufacturers responsible for managing and disposing of the waste generated by their products.
• Plastic Waste Management Rules: India introduced the Plastic Waste Management Rules in 2016, which provide a framework for managing plastic waste through various measures, including recycling and waste-to-energy initiatives.
• Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022: 
  • The guidelines on EPR(Extended Producer Responsibility) coupled with the prohibition of identified single-use plastic items.
  • It banned the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of carry bags made of virgin or recycled plastic less than seventy-five micrometers.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: The Indian government launched the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, a national cleanliness campaign, which includes the collection and disposal of plastic waste.
• Plastic Parks: India has set up Plastic Parks, which are specialized industrial zones for recycling and processing plastic waste.
• Beach clean-up drives: The Indian government and various non-governmental organizations have organized beach clean-up drives to collect and dispose of plastic waste from beaches.
• Awareness campaigns: India has launched awareness campaigns to educate people about the harmful effects of plastic pollution and encourage them to use sustainable alternatives.
• India is a signatory to MARPOL (International Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution).
• The “India Plastic Challenge – Hackathon 2021 
  • It is a unique competition calling upon start-ups /entrepreneurs and students of   Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to develop innovative solutions to mitigate plastic pollution and develop alternatives to single-use plastics.

Way Ahead/Suggestions

Individual efforts

• Try a Zero-Waste Lifestyle: Become a zero-waste champion. Invest in sustainable, ocean-friendly products- reusable coffee mugs, water bottles and food wraps. Consider options like menstrual cups, bamboo toothbrushes and shampoo bars.
• Travel Sustainably: On holiday one can try to watch single-use plastic intake. Refuse miniature bottles in hotel rooms, take your own reusable drinking bottle and use reef-safe sunscreen, without microplastics.
• Dress Sustainably: The fashion industry produces 20 percent of global wastewater and 10 percent of global carbon emissions. That’s more than all international flights and maritime shipping combined. One should consider sustainable clothing lines, vintage shops and repair your clothes when possible.
• Choose plastic-free personal care products: Personal care products are a major source of microplastics, which get washed into the oceans straight from our bathrooms. Look for plastic-free face wash, day cream, makeup, deodorant, shampoo and other products.

Government and community efforts

• Designing a Product: Identifying plastic items that can be replaced with non-plastic, recyclable, or biodegradable materials is the first step. 
  • Find alternatives to single-use plastics and reusable design goods by working with product designers. Countries must embrace circular and sustainable economic practices throughout the plastics value chain to accomplish this.
• Technologies and Innovation: Developing tools and technology to assist governments and organisations in measuring and monitoring plastic garbage in cities. 
• Municipal and community actions: Beach and river clean-ups, public awareness campaigns explaining how people’s actions contribute to marine plastic pollution (or how they may solve it) and disposable plastic bag bans and levies.

Multi-stakeholder collaboration: Government ministries at the national and local levels must collaborate in the development, implementation and oversight of policies, which includes participation from industrial firms, non-governmental organisations and volunteer organisations.

2. IMO Green Voyage2050 Project

• Maritime countries upgraded their Greenhouse House Gas (GHG) emissions strategy to reach net zero “by or around” 2050 without specifying a definite year and taking into account different national circumstances, at the conclusion of the summit of the United Nations International Maritime Organization (IMO) in London on July 7, 2023.
• The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) — 80th session was held at the IMO headquarters (London) from July 3-7.

IMO Greenhouse Gas Strategy 2023:

• The 2023 IMO GHG Strategy adopted calls for the international shipping industry “to reduce the total annual GHG emissions from international shipping by at least 20%, striving for 30%, by 2030, compared to 2008.”
• The draft document agreed upon by member nations says to peak GHG emissions from international shipping “as soon as possible.”
• This is to limit the global temperature increase to well below 2 degrees Celsius as outlined in the 2015 Paris Agreement.
• It also urged the industry “to reduce the total annual GHG emissions from international shipping by at least 70%, striving for 80%, by 2040, compared to 2008.”
• The near-zero emission technologies, fuels, and energy sources should “represent at least 5%, striving for 10%, of the energy used by international shipping by 2030.”
• Biofuels:
• The IMO adopted interim guidance which said that internationally certified biofuel and bio-blends can be used in the shipping industry. This resolution was backed aggressively by India at the conference.
• The carbon intensity of international shipping should decline to reduce CO2 emissions “per transport work”, on average by at least 40 per cent by 2030, compared to 2008 baseline levels.
• Just transition:
• The IMO document, for the first time, spoke about implementing measures to b and other maritime workforce “that leaves no one behind.”
• Carbon emission from maritime shipping sector:
• Maritime shipping is responsible for three per cent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions and these emissions are continuing to grow rapidly.
• A business-as-usual scenario would see shipping emissions increase more than five-fold by 2050 if the shipping industry fails to act now.

International Maritime Organisation (IMO):

• It is the United Nations specialized agency and the global standard-setting authority for the safety, security and environmental performance of international shipping.
• It was established through the UN Convention in Geneva in 1948 having its headquarters in London.
• It currently has 174 Member States constituting its Assembly which meets biennially.
• The Assembly elects 40 Member States to constitute the Council which acts as a governing body.
• Roles :
• Its main role is to create a regulatory framework for the shipping industry that is fair and effective, universally adopted and universally implemented.
• It does not have an implementation mechanism.
• It is also involved in legal matters, including liability and compensation issues and the facilitation of international maritime traffic.
• IMO has adopted measures to reduce air pollution from ships as well as energy efficiency measures including the Energy Efficiency Design Index, which is mandatory for new ships, and the requirement for a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan, for all ships.
• Key IMO Conventions:
• SOLAS(1974)- International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.
• MARPOL(1973)- International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
• STCW- International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers.

Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC):

• The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) addresses environmental issues under IMO’s remit.
• This includes the control and prevention of ship-source pollution covered by the MARPOL treaty, including oil, chemicals carried in bulk, sewage, garbage and emissions from ships, including air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions.
• Other matters covered include ballast water management, anti-fouling systems, ship recycling, pollution preparedness and response, and identification of special areas and particularly sensitive sea areas.

3. G20 Summit: Countries welcome Chennai principles for ocean-based economy

• The G20 Environment and Climate Sustainability Working Group (ECSWG) and Environment and Climate ministers meeting that concluded recently adopted a series of “Chennai High-Level Principles” for a sustainable and resilient blue economy.
• These principles shall serve as a guiding framework globally to drive the transition to a sustainable and resilient blue economy.
• Blue economy refers to advocating sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of ocean ecosystems.
• The Environment ministry said the adoption of these nine principles will not only help conserve ocean biodiversity but also address the consequences of climate change on ocean-based economies in the G20.

9 High Level Principles on Blue Economy:

The 9 key principles that have been adopted on the blue economy are as follows:

1. Addressing Coastal and Marine Pollution: The principle aims to tackle pollution in coastal and marine environments caused by various sources, including plastics, air pollutants, and other persistent pollutants, including those derived from the maritime sector.
2. Sustainable Exploitation: This principle focuses on promoting sustainable use of ocean resources to ensure economic growth, improved livelihoods, and job opportunities while also preserving the health of ocean ecosystems.
3. Illegal Activities: The principle addresses the need to combat illegal activities that negatively impact the marine environment.
4. Acknowledging Ocean-Climate Interlinkages: This principle emphasizes the recognition of links between the ocean and climate, encouraging ocean-based economies to understand the opportunities for climate change mitigation and adaptation through sustainable ocean-based actions.
5. Protection and Restoration of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems: This principle emphasizes the importance of protecting and restoring coastal and marine ecosystems as part of climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.
6. Harnessing Low and Zero Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions: The principle focuses on utilizing low and zero greenhouse gas emissions sources in ocean-based economic activities.
7. Research on Ocean-Based Carbon Dioxide Removal and Sequestration: This principle highlights the importance of research on safe and effective methods of removing and sequestering carbon dioxide from the ocean.
8. Promoting Social and Inter-Generational Equity and Gender Equality: The principle advocates for transparent and inclusive approaches that empower women, communities, and Indigenous Peoples to participate in planning, decision-making, and implementation processes related to the sustainable blue/ocean-based economy.
9. Support for the Global ’30 by 30′ Goal: The principle reiterates the G20’s commitment to the global ’30 by 30′ goal, which aims to ensure that at least 30 percent of degraded terrestrial, inland water, and marine and coastal ecosystems are under effective restoration, and at least 30 percent of terrestrial and inland water areas, and of marine and coastal areas, are effectively conserved and managed by 2030.

Blue Economy

• The World Bank defines “blue economy” as “sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs, while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem”.
• Activities: Seafood harvesting (fishing and aquaculture), extraction and use of marine non-living resources (such as minerals and oil and gas), generation of renewable energy (such as offshore wind), and commerce and trade are examples of activities that could count towards a blue economy.
• 14th SDG Goal: Developing a blue economy is also linked to the 14th Sustainable Development Goal.
• It aims to protect “life below water”, which involves the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources for development.
• Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles:  In 2018, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) had laid out the Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles.
• It is a framework that investors can use to fund ocean-based industries.
• Financiers can use it as a reference point to see how marine investment can impact livelihood and poverty eradication.
• Global Biodiversity Framework: Targets set out in the Global Biodiversity Framework of COP15 focus on reducing the rate of loss of biodiversity, ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, and restoring degraded ecosystems. It serves as a blueprint for countries to work together and make progress in addressing the global biodiversity crisis.

India and Blue Economy

India envisions a blue economy that will contribute to food security, poverty alleviation, the mitigation of and resilience to the impacts of climate change, enhance trade and investment, enhance maritime connectivity, boost diversification, job creation and socio-economic growth.

• Facilitate Economic Growth: India is the third largest fish producing country, contributing 8% to the global fish production and ranks second in aquaculture production.
• With12 major ports and 187 non-major ports, handling about 1,400 million tonnes of cargo, 95% of India’s trade by volume transits by sea.
• India’s Exclusive Economic Zone is rich in living and non-living resources and holds significant recoverable resources of crude oil and of recoverable natural gas.
• Marine Biotechnology and Food Security:  Fish, being an affordable and rich source of animal protein, is one of the healthiest options to mitigate hunger and malnutrition in India.
• Aquaculture & Marine Biotechnology programme was initiated during 1988-89 to support R&D projects towards development of useful products and process from the marine resources.
• Fisheries as a Commercial Enterprise: Having commenced as a purely traditional activity, India’s fisheries are being transformed into a commercial enterprise.
• The sector has shown steady growth and has become a major contributor of foreign exchange. India is among the top 5 fish exporting countries in the world.
• Generation of Jobs: Fisheries provide livelihood to about 15 million fishers and fish-farmers at the primary level in India.
• This sector also generates almost twice the number of jobs, along the value-chain — in transportation, cold-storages, and marketing.
• Marine Tourism:  Marine tourism is also a sector that has been one of the fastest growing globally and in India. Particularly in coastal states like Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, coastal tourism has contributed largely to both the state economies and livelihood creation.

Challenges in Building India’s Blue Economy

• Lack of Investment:  There is lack of investment in India’s Deepwater fleet.  Indian fishing vessels do not venture into rich fishing grounds and most of the fishing is being undertaken in coastal waters.
• Consequently, Indian fishermen have to compete with those of neighbours, Sri Lanka and Pakistan, in restricted fishing grounds.
• Fishing vessels often drift into foreign waters leading to apprehension by navies/coast guards and prolonged imprisonment of the crew.
• Lack of Infrastructure:  Since Independence, India’s marine fishery has been dominated by the “artisanal sector” i.e. poor, small-scale fishers who can afford only small sailboats or canoes to fish for subsistence.
• India’s artisanal fishers deliver only 2% of marine fish to the market, while 98% is caught by mechanised and motorised craft.
• The rich resources in India’s Exclusive Economic Zone remain underexploited. Much of the catch from India’s fishing grounds is taken away by the better equipped fishing fleets of other Indo-Pacific countries.
• These countries also indulge in Illegal, Unregulated, and Unreported (IUU) fishing which has serious security and environmental implications.
• Low Level Value Addition: Currently, most of India’s fisheries exports are at a low level of value addition in frozen and chilled form, without going for higher-order “ready-to-eat” or “ready-to-cook” marine products.
• Stress on Coastal Ecosystem:  India needs to curb uncontrolled and unplanned tourist activities that cause stress on the carrying capacity of coastal ecosystems, especially those on fragile island territories.
• Environmental Issues: The increase in human activity, trade and commerce and the construction of large-scale infrastructure around these areas, pose a significant threat to the sustainability of these zones.
• Lack of Skilled Human Resource: Shipping and ports require skilled manpower, but to meet the growing and changing demands in this sector India would require re-skilling and upskilling in the future.

India’s Initiatives for Blue Economy

• Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana: Launched in 2020 for sustainable development of India’s fisheries sector with an estimated investment of Rs 20,000 crores over the next five years.
• Draft Blue Economy Policy: It envisages optimal utilisation of all sectors of the maritime domain, from living and non-living resources to tourism and ocean energy for sustainable development of coastal areas. The 7 key areas are shown in the image:
• Sagarmala Initiative: A Union Government’s initiative that aims to promote port-led direct and indirect development and provide infrastructure to transport goods to and from ports quickly, efficiently and cost-effectively.
• Fisheries and Aquaculture Infrastructure Development Fund (FIDF): It was launched by the Union Government in 2018 with a total fund size of Rs 7522.48 crore with the aims to achieve a sustainable growth of 8-9%, in a move to augment the country’s fish production to the level of about 20 million tonnes by 2022-23.

Way Forward

• India needs to evolve a long-term vision for its fishing industry with focus on four areas:
• Mechanisation and modernisation of fishing vessels by providing communication links and electronic fish-detection devices, with artisanal fishers being funded for this.
• Developing deep-water fishing fleets, with bigger, sea-going vessels equipped with refrigeration facilities.
•  A DWF fleet will have to be built around the “mother ship” concept, wherein a large vessel would accompany the fleet to provide fuel, medical and on-board preservation/processing facilities.
• Development of modern fishing harbours with adequate berthing and post-harvest facilities, including cold storage, preservation, and packaging of fish.

1. Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into environment? (2019)

(a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems.
(b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children.
(c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields.
(d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants.

Ans: (a)

Explanation

• Microbeads are small, solid, manufactured plastic particles that are less than 5mm and do not degrade or dissolve in water.
  • Mainly made of polyethylene, microbeads can also be prepared from petrochemical plastics such as polystyrene and polypropylene. They may be added to a range of products, including rinse-off cosmetics, personal care and cleaning products.
• Microbeads, because of their small size pass unfiltered through the sewage treatment system and reach the water bodies. The untreated microbeads in the water bodies are taken up by the marine animals, thus producing toxicity and causing harm to the marine ecosystem.
  • In 2014, Netherland became the first country to ban cosmetics microbeads.
• Therefore, option (a) is the correct answer.

2. What is blue carbon? (2021)

(a) Carbon captured by oceans and coastal ecosystems

(b) Carbon sequestered in forest biomass and agricultural soils

(c) Carbon contained in petroleum and natural gas

(d) Carbon present in atmosphere

Ans: (a)

Explanation

Blue carbon is the term for carbon captured by the world's ocean and coastal ecosystems.

The coastal ecosystems of mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows contain large stores of carbon deposited by vegetation and various natural processes over centuries. These ecosystems sequester and store more carbon – often referred to as ‘blue carbon’ – per unit area than terrestrial forests. The ability of these vegetated ecosystems to remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere makes them significant net carbon sinks.

3. Bisphenol A (BPA), a cause of concern, is a structural/key component in the manufacture of which of the following kinds of plastics? (2021)

(a) Low-density polyethylene

(b) Polycarbonate

(c) Polyethylene terephthalate

(d) Polyvinyl Chloride

Ans: (b)

Explanation

• Bisphenol A is a synthetically obtained colourless, crystalline organic compound that occurs in the solid phase belonging to the diphenylmethane group. It is soluble in organic solvents but poorly dissolves in water
• Uses of Bisphenol A:

• Bisphenol A (BPA) is commonly used to coat the insides of food cans, bottle tops, and water supply lines, and was once a component of baby bottles.

• Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical produced in large quantities for use primarily in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Specifically, it is used for packaging foods and beverages, baby bottles, thermal papers (i.e., receipts), and dental sealants.

• BPA polycarbonate plastics are very sturdy in nature and are used to make large variants of microwave-proof utensils. 

• It is used as a material for safety glasses, bulletproof windows and helmets.

• It is used in many medical devices such as heart-lung machines, incubators, artificial kidneys, dental fillers, and sealants.

• It is also used as eyewear glasses , due to their optical clarity.

• Environmental impacts of Bisphenol A:

• BPA can enter the environment directly through the leaching of chemicals or degradation of materials containing bisphenol A and may render the land unfertile and barren making it unsuitable for agriculture.

• It  affects the growth and reproduction of marine life.

• It causes endocrine effects in fish, amphibians, and reptiles.

• Adverse effects of Bisphenol A on human health:

• When ingested, the chemical disrupts the endocrine system by interfering with the hormones and affecting the brain and prostate gland of foetuses, infants, and children.

• It can cause high blood pressure, diabetes and cardiovascular disease in adults.

• BPA is a xenoestrogen and mimics estrogen present in the body, thus exhibiting hormone-like properties.

• It can indirectly aid in the spread of vector-borne diseases in humans and animals.

4. What is Bisphenol A (BPA)? (2008)

(a) A medical test for detecting cancer

(b) A test for testing the use of drugs to improve performance by athletes

(c) A chemical used for the development of food-packaging materials

(d) A special type of alloy steel

Ans: (c)

Explanation

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic chemical compound used in a wide range of consumer products and is classed by the Government of Canada as a hormone disruptor. Bisphenol A is found in many everyday products including food cans, plastic water containers and baby bottles. A study in the US found that 95% of people tested had been exposed to BPA.