SECTION A

1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :  10×5 = 50 Marks

(a) What is common sense? How are common knowledge and sociology related to each other?

Common Sense

• Common sense is knowledge and awareness that is held communally (shared by majority of people). It does not depend on specialist education and in some respects states the obvious.
• It equates to the knowledge and experience which most people allegedly have, or which the person using the terms believes that they do or should have.
• Since common sense ideas are things “everyone knows to be true”, there can be no argument about their validity. A major problem with common-sense explanations is the fact that they effectively close-down any possible counter argument.
• Sociological knowledge on the other and hand, has greater validity than most forms of commonsense knowledge. Sociologists try to base their statements about human behavior on evidence rather than simple assumption.

Common Knowledge and Sociology Relationship

• Sociology is concerned with studying many things which most people already know something about. Everyone will have some knowledge and understanding of family life, the education system, work, the mass media and religion simply by living as a member of society. This leads many people to assume that the topics studied by sociologists and the explanations sociologists produce are really just common sense: what ‘everyone knows’. This is a very mistaken assumption.

• Sociological research has shown many widely held ‘common-sense’ ideas and explanations to be false. The re-examination of such common-sense views is very much the concern of sociology.
• Common-sense explanations are closely bound up with the beliefs of a particular society at particular periods of time. Different societies have differing common-sense ideas. The Hopi Indians’ common-sense make them do a rain dance to encourage the rain gods. Common-sense ideas also change over time in any society. In Britain, people no longer burn ‘witches’ when the crops fail, but seek scientific explanations for such events.

             Not all the findings of sociologists undermine common sense, and the work of sociologists has made important contributions to the common-sense understandings of members of society. For example, the knowledge which most people have about the changing family, with rising rates of divorce and growing numbers of lone parents, is largely due to the work of sociologists. However, sociology differs from common sense in three important ways:  

• Sociologists use a sociological imagination. This means that, while they study the familiar routines of daily life, sociologists look at them in unfamiliar ways or from a different angle. They ask if things really are as common sense says they are.
• Sociologists re-examine existing assumptions, by studying how things were in the past, how they’ve changed, how they differ between societies and how they might change in the future.  
• Sociologists look at evidence on issues before making up their minds. The explanations and conclusions of sociologists are based on precise evidence which has been collected through painstaking research using established research procedures.
• Sociologists strive to maintain objectivity and value freedom in their work.

It’s often said that women are naturally nurturing and men are naturally assertive. These ideas are treated as “common sense,” rooted in biology. But sociology shows that gender roles are socially constructed, not biologically fixed. From childhood, boys and girls are taught different behaviors through toys, media, and family expectations. These cultural influences shape how individuals express themselves and what roles they pursue. For example, women may be steered toward caregiving professions not because of innate traits, but because of societal norms. Sociology reveals that gender is fluid and shaped by context—not destiny.

(b)  What is the relationship (similarities and differences) between sociology and history in terms of their area of study and methodology?

Sociology and history share a deep and intrinsic connection. In fact, sociology has emerged as one of the most authentic outcomes of historical inquiry. Their close relationship has led scholars like G. Von Bulow to argue that sociology should not be considered a distinct science separate from history.

Similarities between sociology and history

Sociology and history are closely interrelated and actually are dependent on each other? History of culture and institutions is helpful in understanding past society, its activities and development. Similarly, sociology offers its tools such as social imagination, ideal types and so on which help in understanding and conceptualise past social events. Sociology is concerned with present but interested to situate its context in past. Both disciplines need each other to make a complete assessment of an issue. Sociology need to see past to understand the context and add value to its analysis. Similarly history also takes into account socio-cultural aspects while studying historical phenomena. Historian also needs social background and at times sociological concepts as well to write and explain historical phenomenon elaborately.

Differences between sociology and history

It is described that sociology is much concerned with present whereas history with past. Their approaches and purposes too differ accordingly. Furthermore, it may also be noted that the relationship between the two disciplines is marked by a number of myths and misconceptions too. For instance, sociologists are often considered by historians as professionals whose abstract jargons lacks sensitivity to particular time and places. On the other side, historians are often seen mere collectors of information who are unable to analyse their knowledge with required sophistication and methodical precision. History said to be more concrete and descriptive whereas sociology is considered more abstract and theoretical science. Though closely related to each other, the two disciplines are said to be two different intellectual enterprises in terms of their purposes, world views, approaches and methods.

Historical sociology is an outcome of intersection of the both the disciplines have emerged. It is also described that the historical sociology as branch of sociology has critically contributed to the growth of an interdisciplinary scholarship. Many sociologists, from the beginning of sociology as major discipline, such as Marx, Weber, Durkheim, later on Castells, Amin, Frank, Blaut, have elaborately contributed in this field. In nutshell, both sociology and history, though being two different disciplines in the domain of social sciences, are very much closely interrelated and supplements each other’s field of studies.

Together, sociology and history enrich our understanding of the past and present, offering complementary insights into the complexities of human experience.

(c)  What is a variable in social research? What are their different types? Elaborate.

A variable represents any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or quantified. Understanding the types of variables is crucial for conducting rigorous sociological research. They help researchers operationalize abstract concepts like inequality, power, or identity, and provide the tools to analyze complex social relationships.

Types

1. Independent Variable (IV)

• • The variable that is manipulated or categorized to observe its effect.
  • It’s the presumed cause in a cause-effect relationship.
  • Example: In a study on education and income, education level is the independent variable.

2. Dependent Variable (DV)

• • The outcome or effect that is measured.
  • It depends on the independent variable.
  • Example: Income is the dependent variable in the same study.

3. Control Variable

• • Variables that are held constant to isolate the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Age or gender might be controlled when studying the effect of education on income.

4. Intervening (Mediating) Variable

• • A variable that explains the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Job type might mediate the link between education and income.

5. Moderating Variable

• • A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Gender might moderate how education influences income.

6. Confounding Variable

• • An outside variable that can distort the true relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Parental wealth might confound the relationship between education and income.

Beyond their functional roles in research design, variables are also classified based on how they are measured. Nominal variables represent categories without any inherent order, such as religion or marital status. Ordinal variables have a clear order but no consistent spacing between categories, like social class or education level. Interval variables are numeric and have equal intervals between values but lack a true zero point—IQ scores are a common example. Ratio variables have all the properties of interval variables but include a meaningful zero, such as income, age, or number of children.

By carefully selecting and analyzing variables, sociologists can uncover patterns, test theories, and contribute valuable insights into the workings of society.

(d)  Can Merton''s reference group theory be relevant in understanding identity making in the digital world?

Merton proposed that individuals evaluate themselves and shape their attitudes, aspirations, and behavior by comparing themselves with reference groups – groups to which they belong (membership groups) or aspire to belong (non-membership/aspirational groups).

Two main functions of reference groups are:

1. Normative function – providing values, norms, and standards of behavior.
2. Comparative function – serving as a yardstick for self-evaluation and identity.

Digital World and Identity-Making

Virtual Reference Groups

• Online platforms like Instagram, Reddit, or LinkedIn allow users to affiliate with or aspire to groups they may never physically encounter.
• Influencers, fandoms, professional networks, and niche communities become reference points for identity, lifestyle, and values.

Aspirational Identity

• Users often curate their digital personas based on the norms and aesthetics of aspirational groups—fitness communities, fashion icons, tech innovators, etc.
• This mirrors Merton’s idea of non-membership reference groups that influence behavior and self-concept.

Normative Pressures

• Social media amplifies normative expectations—likes, shares, and comments become feedback mechanisms that reinforce group norms.
• Individuals adjust their online behavior to align with the perceived standards of their reference groups.

Multiple and Fluid Identities

• The digital world allows people to belong to multiple reference groups simultaneously—a gamer, a climate activist, a startup founder—all within different platforms.
• Identity becomes fluid and performative, shaped by the norms of each digital space.

Echo Chambers and Identity Reinforcement

• Algorithms often reinforce exposure to like-minded groups, creating echo chambers that intensify group norms and solidify identity.
• This can lead to polarization or deepened affiliation with specific ideologies or lifestyles.

Merton’s reference group theory provides a strong lens to understand identity-making in the digital world. Social media and digital platforms amplify the normative and comparative functions of reference groups by making aspirational lifestyles and peer comparisons constantly visible. While this fosters creativity and global identities, it also risks alienation and identity fragmentation. Thus, digital identity-making is best seen as an extension of Merton’s reference group processes, but accelerated and complicated by digital technologies.

(e)  Is the social stratification theory gender-blind? Elucidate.

Social stratification theory, especially in its classical formulations, has historically been gender-blind, meaning it largely ignored gender as a distinct axis of inequality.  

Classical Theories and the Absence of Gender

               Rooted in the works of Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, functionalism views society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability. Stratification is seen as necessary to ensure that the most qualified individuals fill the most important roles. Gender roles are justified as functional: men perform instrumental roles (breadwinning, leadership), while women perform expressive roles (nurturing, caregiving).

           Karl Marx and Max Weber largely ignored gender as an independent and structuring force of social hierarchy. Marx focused on class relations rooted in ownership of the means of production, viewing women’s oppression as a byproduct of capitalism rather than a distinct system of domination. Similarly, Weber’s multidimensional model—emphasizing class, status, and party—did not integrate gender as a core dimension of stratification, despite recognizing status groups. As a result, women’s labor, particularly unpaid domestic work, was rendered invisible, and household stratification was often reduced to the status of the male breadwinner.

Feminist Critique: Gender as a Foundational Stratifier

Feminist scholars argue that gender is not secondary but foundational to social stratification. They critique the assumption that class alone determines social position, pointing out that women experience inequality not only through class but through patriarchal structures that systematically privilege men. For instance, the sexual division of labor—where women are assigned caregiving and reproductive roles—creates a separate and unequal status that persists across class lines. This results in phenomena like the wage gap, occupational segregation, and the “second shift” of domestic labor, all of which reflect gender-based stratification independent of class.

Intersectionality – Contemporary

The concept of intersectionality, introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw, further exposes the limitations of traditional stratification theories. It demonstrates that gender does not operate in isolation but intersects with race, caste, and class to produce unique forms of oppression. For example, a Dalit woman in India faces compounded disadvantages due to her gender, caste, and class, which cannot be understood by analyzing any single factor alone. Traditional models fail to capture such layered inequalities, reinforcing their gender-blind nature.

Scholars like Ortner and Whitehead have proposed that gender itself functions as a prestige structure, where men are universally assigned higher status through public roles (e.g., chief, priest), while women’s status is mediated through relationships to men (e.g., wife, mother). This structural devaluation of women is not an outcome of class but a cross-cultural pattern, suggesting that gender must be treated as a primary, not auxiliary, dimension of stratification.

While traditional social stratification theory was indeed gender-blind, contemporary sociology has evolved to integrate gender as a central dimension of analysis. This transformation owes much to feminist scholarship, which reframed gender from a peripheral concern to a core component of social structure.

2. 

1. What is positivism? Critically analyse the major arguments against it. (20 marks)
2. Highlight the main features of historical materialism as propounded by Marx. How far is this theory relevant in understanding contemporary societies? Explain. (20 marks)
3. What do you mean by reliability? Discuss the importance of reliability in social science research. (10 marks)

3. 

1. Compare capability deprivation approach with that of social capital deprivation in understanding chronic poverty. (20 marks)
2. Are pressure groups a threat to or a necessary element of democracy? Explain with suitable illustrations. (20 marks)
3. What is hypothesis? Critically evaluate the significance of hypothesis in social research. (10 marks)

4.

1. Give an account of the recent trends of marriage in the Indian context. How are these different from traditional practices? (20 marks)
2. What would you identify as the similarities and differences in the elite theories of Mosca, Michels and Pareto? Discuss their main/crucial issues. (20 marks)
3. Critically analyze the sociological significance of informal sector in the economy of developing societies. (10 marks)

SECTION B

5.  Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :  10×5 = 50 Marks

1. In what way is the scope of sociology unique? Explain.
2. Does the structural-functionalist perspective on social stratification promote a status quo? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Do you think that the formal workspaces are free of gender bias? Argue your case.
4. How does Weber''s Verstehen address the objectivity-subjectivity debate in sociology?
5. To what extent can education and skill development be an agent of social change? Critically analyze.

6. 

1. What is science? Do you think that the methods used in natural sciences can be applied to sociology? Give reasons for your answer. (20 marks)
2. What do you understand by gender-based domestic division of labour? Is it undergoing a change in the wake of increasing participation of women in formal employment? Clarify your answer with illustrations. (20 marks)
3. How can you assess the significance of social movements in the digital era? Explain. (10 marks)

7. 

1. What is sampling in the context of social research? Discuss different forms of sampling with their relative advantages and disadvantages. (20 marks)
2. How do theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim differ in understanding religion? Explain. (20 marks)
3. What is the nature of relationship between science and religion in modern society? Analyse with suitable examples. (10 marks)

8. 

1. What do you understand by sustainable development? Discuss the elements of sustainable development as proposed in the UNDP''s Sustainable Development Goals Report–2015. (20 marks)
2. How do Civil Society Organizations such as NGOs and Self-Help Groups contribute to grassroot level social changes? Discuss. (20 marks)
3. In what way does queer kinship challenge the traditional kinship system? Substantiate by giving illustrations. (10 marks)