SECTION A

1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :  10×5 = 50 Marks

(a) What is common sense? How are common knowledge and sociology related to each other?

Common Sense

• Common sense is knowledge and awareness that is held communally (shared by majority of people). It does not depend on specialist education and in some respects states the obvious.
• It equates to the knowledge and experience which most people allegedly have, or which the person using the terms believes that they do or should have.
• Since common sense ideas are things “everyone knows to be true”, there can be no argument about their validity. A major problem with common-sense explanations is the fact that they effectively close-down any possible counter argument.
• Sociological knowledge on the other and hand, has greater validity than most forms of commonsense knowledge. Sociologists try to base their statements about human behavior on evidence rather than simple assumption.

Common Knowledge and Sociology Relationship

• Sociology is concerned with studying many things which most people already know something about. Everyone will have some knowledge and understanding of family life, the education system, work, the mass media and religion simply by living as a member of society. This leads many people to assume that the topics studied by sociologists and the explanations sociologists produce are really just common sense: what ‘everyone knows’. This is a very mistaken assumption.

• Sociological research has shown many widely held ‘common-sense’ ideas and explanations to be false. The re-examination of such common-sense views is very much the concern of sociology.
• Common-sense explanations are closely bound up with the beliefs of a particular society at particular periods of time. Different societies have differing common-sense ideas. The Hopi Indians’ common-sense make them do a rain dance to encourage the rain gods. Common-sense ideas also change over time in any society. In Britain, people no longer burn ‘witches’ when the crops fail, but seek scientific explanations for such events.

             Not all the findings of sociologists undermine common sense, and the work of sociologists has made important contributions to the common-sense understandings of members of society. For example, the knowledge which most people have about the changing family, with rising rates of divorce and growing numbers of lone parents, is largely due to the work of sociologists. However, sociology differs from common sense in three important ways:  

• Sociologists use a sociological imagination. This means that, while they study the familiar routines of daily life, sociologists look at them in unfamiliar ways or from a different angle. They ask if things really are as common sense says they are.
• Sociologists re-examine existing assumptions, by studying how things were in the past, how they’ve changed, how they differ between societies and how they might change in the future.  
• Sociologists look at evidence on issues before making up their minds. The explanations and conclusions of sociologists are based on precise evidence which has been collected through painstaking research using established research procedures.
• Sociologists strive to maintain objectivity and value freedom in their work.

It’s often said that women are naturally nurturing and men are naturally assertive. These ideas are treated as “common sense,” rooted in biology. But sociology shows that gender roles are socially constructed, not biologically fixed. From childhood, boys and girls are taught different behaviors through toys, media, and family expectations. These cultural influences shape how individuals express themselves and what roles they pursue. For example, women may be steered toward caregiving professions not because of innate traits, but because of societal norms. Sociology reveals that gender is fluid and shaped by context—not destiny.

(b)  What is the relationship (similarities and differences) between sociology and history in terms of their area of study and methodology?

Sociology and history share a deep and intrinsic connection. In fact, sociology has emerged as one of the most authentic outcomes of historical inquiry. Their close relationship has led scholars like G. Von Bulow to argue that sociology should not be considered a distinct science separate from history.

Similarities between sociology and history

Sociology and history are closely interrelated and actually are dependent on each other? History of culture and institutions is helpful in understanding past society, its activities and development. Similarly, sociology offers its tools such as social imagination, ideal types and so on which help in understanding and conceptualise past social events. Sociology is concerned with present but interested to situate its context in past. Both disciplines need each other to make a complete assessment of an issue. Sociology need to see past to understand the context and add value to its analysis. Similarly history also takes into account socio-cultural aspects while studying historical phenomena. Historian also needs social background and at times sociological concepts as well to write and explain historical phenomenon elaborately.

Differences between sociology and history

It is described that sociology is much concerned with present whereas history with past. Their approaches and purposes too differ accordingly. Furthermore, it may also be noted that the relationship between the two disciplines is marked by a number of myths and misconceptions too. For instance, sociologists are often considered by historians as professionals whose abstract jargons lacks sensitivity to particular time and places. On the other side, historians are often seen mere collectors of information who are unable to analyse their knowledge with required sophistication and methodical precision. History said to be more concrete and descriptive whereas sociology is considered more abstract and theoretical science. Though closely related to each other, the two disciplines are said to be two different intellectual enterprises in terms of their purposes, world views, approaches and methods.

Historical sociology is an outcome of intersection of the both the disciplines have emerged. It is also described that the historical sociology as branch of sociology has critically contributed to the growth of an interdisciplinary scholarship. Many sociologists, from the beginning of sociology as major discipline, such as Marx, Weber, Durkheim, later on Castells, Amin, Frank, Blaut, have elaborately contributed in this field. In nutshell, both sociology and history, though being two different disciplines in the domain of social sciences, are very much closely interrelated and supplements each other’s field of studies.

Together, sociology and history enrich our understanding of the past and present, offering complementary insights into the complexities of human experience.

(c)  What is a variable in social research? What are their different types? Elaborate.

A variable represents any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or quantified. Understanding the types of variables is crucial for conducting rigorous sociological research. They help researchers operationalize abstract concepts like inequality, power, or identity, and provide the tools to analyze complex social relationships.

Types

1. Independent Variable (IV)

• • The variable that is manipulated or categorized to observe its effect.
  • It’s the presumed cause in a cause-effect relationship.
  • Example: In a study on education and income, education level is the independent variable.

2. Dependent Variable (DV)

• • The outcome or effect that is measured.
  • It depends on the independent variable.
  • Example: Income is the dependent variable in the same study.

3. Control Variable

• • Variables that are held constant to isolate the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Age or gender might be controlled when studying the effect of education on income.

4. Intervening (Mediating) Variable

• • A variable that explains the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Job type might mediate the link between education and income.

5. Moderating Variable

• • A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Gender might moderate how education influences income.

6. Confounding Variable

• • An outside variable that can distort the true relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Parental wealth might confound the relationship between education and income.

Beyond their functional roles in research design, variables are also classified based on how they are measured. Nominal variables represent categories without any inherent order, such as religion or marital status. Ordinal variables have a clear order but no consistent spacing between categories, like social class or education level. Interval variables are numeric and have equal intervals between values but lack a true zero point—IQ scores are a common example. Ratio variables have all the properties of interval variables but include a meaningful zero, such as income, age, or number of children.

By carefully selecting and analyzing variables, sociologists can uncover patterns, test theories, and contribute valuable insights into the workings of society.

(d)  Can Merton''s reference group theory be relevant in understanding identity making in the digital world?

Merton proposed that individuals evaluate themselves and shape their attitudes, aspirations, and behavior by comparing themselves with reference groups – groups to which they belong (membership groups) or aspire to belong (non-membership/aspirational groups).

Two main functions of reference groups are:

1. Normative function – providing values, norms, and standards of behavior.
2. Comparative function – serving as a yardstick for self-evaluation and identity.

Digital World and Identity-Making

Virtual Reference Groups

• Online platforms like Instagram, Reddit, or LinkedIn allow users to affiliate with or aspire to groups they may never physically encounter.
• Influencers, fandoms, professional networks, and niche communities become reference points for identity, lifestyle, and values.

Aspirational Identity

• Users often curate their digital personas based on the norms and aesthetics of aspirational groups—fitness communities, fashion icons, tech innovators, etc.
• This mirrors Merton’s idea of non-membership reference groups that influence behavior and self-concept.

Normative Pressures

• Social media amplifies normative expectations—likes, shares, and comments become feedback mechanisms that reinforce group norms.
• Individuals adjust their online behavior to align with the perceived standards of their reference groups.

Multiple and Fluid Identities

• The digital world allows people to belong to multiple reference groups simultaneously—a gamer, a climate activist, a startup founder—all within different platforms.
• Identity becomes fluid and performative, shaped by the norms of each digital space.

Echo Chambers and Identity Reinforcement

• Algorithms often reinforce exposure to like-minded groups, creating echo chambers that intensify group norms and solidify identity.
• This can lead to polarization or deepened affiliation with specific ideologies or lifestyles.

Merton’s reference group theory provides a strong lens to understand identity-making in the digital world. Social media and digital platforms amplify the normative and comparative functions of reference groups by making aspirational lifestyles and peer comparisons constantly visible. While this fosters creativity and global identities, it also risks alienation and identity fragmentation. Thus, digital identity-making is best seen as an extension of Merton’s reference group processes, but accelerated and complicated by digital technologies.

(e)  Is the social stratification theory gender-blind? Elucidate.

Social stratification theory, especially in its classical formulations, has historically been gender-blind, meaning it largely ignored gender as a distinct axis of inequality.  

Classical Theories and the Absence of Gender

               Rooted in the works of Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, functionalism views society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability. Stratification is seen as necessary to ensure that the most qualified individuals fill the most important roles. Gender roles are justified as functional: men perform instrumental roles (breadwinning, leadership), while women perform expressive roles (nurturing, caregiving).

           Karl Marx and Max Weber largely ignored gender as an independent and structuring force of social hierarchy. Marx focused on class relations rooted in ownership of the means of production, viewing women’s oppression as a byproduct of capitalism rather than a distinct system of domination. Similarly, Weber’s multidimensional model—emphasizing class, status, and party—did not integrate gender as a core dimension of stratification, despite recognizing status groups. As a result, women’s labor, particularly unpaid domestic work, was rendered invisible, and household stratification was often reduced to the status of the male breadwinner.

Feminist Critique: Gender as a Foundational Stratifier

Feminist scholars argue that gender is not secondary but foundational to social stratification. They critique the assumption that class alone determines social position, pointing out that women experience inequality not only through class but through patriarchal structures that systematically privilege men. For instance, the sexual division of labor—where women are assigned caregiving and reproductive roles—creates a separate and unequal status that persists across class lines. This results in phenomena like the wage gap, occupational segregation, and the “second shift” of domestic labor, all of which reflect gender-based stratification independent of class.

Intersectionality – Contemporary

The concept of intersectionality, introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw, further exposes the limitations of traditional stratification theories. It demonstrates that gender does not operate in isolation but intersects with race, caste, and class to produce unique forms of oppression. For example, a Dalit woman in India faces compounded disadvantages due to her gender, caste, and class, which cannot be understood by analyzing any single factor alone. Traditional models fail to capture such layered inequalities, reinforcing their gender-blind nature.

Scholars like Ortner and Whitehead have proposed that gender itself functions as a prestige structure, where men are universally assigned higher status through public roles (e.g., chief, priest), while women’s status is mediated through relationships to men (e.g., wife, mother). This structural devaluation of women is not an outcome of class but a cross-cultural pattern, suggesting that gender must be treated as a primary, not auxiliary, dimension of stratification.

While traditional social stratification theory was indeed gender-blind, contemporary sociology has evolved to integrate gender as a central dimension of analysis. This transformation owes much to feminist scholarship, which reframed gender from a peripheral concern to a core component of social structure.

2. 

1. What is positivism? Critically analyse the major arguments against it. (20 marks)

Positivism is a philosophical and methodological approach that asserts that authentic knowledge is derived exclusively from empirical, observable, and measurable facts obtained through scientific methods. In sociology, positivism holds that society functions according to general laws akin to natural laws, and social phenomena can be studied objectively through empirical observation, statistical analysis, and controlled experiments. This approach emphasizes the collection of quantitative data and inductive reasoning to uncover social facts—such as institutions, norms, and values—that exist independently of individual consciousness and govern social behavior.

Auguste Comte, regarded as the father of sociology, pioneered positivism asserting that sociology should emulate natural sciences to generate objective and testable knowledge about social order and progress. Positivists believe that sociology can identify causal relationships and propose social reforms based on scientific findings.

Positivists emphasize:

• Objectivity
• Quantification
• Value-neutrality
• Predictability and control

Criticisms of Positivism

Human behavior is shaped by beliefs, emotions, and interpretations—not just external forces. Social phenomena must be understood within their cultural and historical contexts. Unlike natural sciences, sociology cannot rely on fixed laws due to the complexity of human behavior. Sociology should explore how individuals create and negotiate meaning in their social worlds.

Max Weber

• Weber rejected the idea that sociology should mimic the natural sciences. He emphasized Verstehen (interpretive understanding) to grasp the subjective meanings behind social actions.
• Advocated for a value-conscious sociology that recognizes cultural context and individual agency.

Georg Simmel

• Simmel argued that positivism oversimplifies social reality by ignoring the fluid and dynamic nature of human interactions.
• Focused on micro-level interactions and the importance of individual consciousness in shaping society.

Wilhelm Dilthey

• Dilthey distinguished between the natural sciences (explaining phenomena) and human sciences (understanding meaning). He believed positivism failed to capture the richness of human experience.
• Pioneered hermeneutics as a method for interpreting social life.

Rickert and the German Idealists

• They challenged the idea of universal laws in sociology, arguing that social phenomena are historically and culturally specific.
• Emphasized the importance of values and historical context in social analysis.

Phenomenologists (e.g., Alfred Schutz)

• Positivism ignores the lived experiences and consciousness of individuals.
• Developed methods to study how people construct meaning in everyday life.

While positivism laid the foundation for sociology as a scientific discipline, its limitations have led to richer, more nuanced approaches. A balanced sociological inquiry often integrates empirical rigor with interpretive depth, recognizing that society is both structured and meaningfully constructed.

b. Highlight the main features of historical materialism as propounded by Marx. How far is this theory relevant in understanding contemporary societies? Explain. (20 marks)

Historical materialism is Marx’s framework for understanding societal development through the lens of material and economic conditions. Its key features include:

Material Conditions Drive History

• • Marx argued that history is shaped not by ideas or morality, but by material forces—especially the mode of production (how goods are produced) and the relations of production (who owns and controls resources).

Base and Superstructure Model

• • Society consists of:
  • Economic Base: Forces and relations of production.
  • Superstructure: Institutions like law, politics, religion, and culture, which are shaped by the base.

Class Struggle as Engine of Change

• • Social change occurs through conflict between classes—e.g., slaves vs. masters, serfs vs. feudal lords, proletariat vs. bourgeoisie.

Stages of Societal Development

• • Marx identified historical stages: primitive communism → slavery → feudalism → capitalism → socialism → communism.

Dialectical Process

• • Change is driven by contradictions within the economic system, resolved through revolutionary transformation.

Relevance in Contemporary Societies

Historical materialism remains relevant for understanding social inequalities and economic power dynamics today. It helps to analyze:

• Capitalist Economy: The role of class relations, exploitation, and how economic interests shape politics and culture.
• Globalization: International class dynamics and the effects of capitalist expansion on different societies.
• Social Movements: Class-based resistance and struggles for economic justice.
• Technology and Labor: Changes in productive forces (automation, AI) shaping work and social relations.

Criticisms

• Economic Determinism: Critics argue Marx overemphasized economics and neglected culture, gender, and identity.
• Failure to Predict Outcomes: Marx’s prediction of capitalism’s collapse and proletarian revolution hasn’t materialized as expected.
• Complexity of Modern Societies: Contemporary societies are shaped by multiple intersecting factors—race, gender, technology—not just class.

Historical materialism remains a powerful tool for analyzing structural inequalities and systemic change. While its deterministic aspects have been challenged, its emphasis on economic foundations and class dynamics continues to inform critical sociology, political economy, and global studies.

c. What do you mean by reliability? Discuss the importance of reliability in social science research. (10 marks).

Reliability in social science research refers to the consistency, stability, and dependability of a measurement instrument or research procedure. It means that the tool or method used to collect data produces the same results under consistent conditions over time. For example, if a questionnaire measuring political attitudes is administered to the same group twice under similar conditions, a reliable instrument will yield similar results.

Types of Reliability

• Test-Retest Reliability: Consistency of results over time.
• Inter-Rater Reliability: Agreement among different observers or researchers.
• Internal Consistency: Consistency among items within a test (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha).
• Parallel-Forms Reliability: Consistency between different versions of a test.

Importance of Reliability in Social Science Research

Ensures Credibility of Findings

• • Reliable data builds trust in the research outcomes and supports valid conclusions.

Facilitates Replication

• • Other researchers can replicate the study and verify results, strengthening scientific rigor.

Supports Validity

• • While reliability doesn’t guarantee validity, unreliable tools cannot be valid. Reliable instruments are a prerequisite for accurate measurement.

Improves Policy and Practice

• • Reliable research informs evidence-based decisions in areas like education, public health, and governance.

Reduces Measurement Error

• • It minimizes random errors that can distort findings and interpretations

Without reliability, data becomes unstable and interpretations questionable, undermining the entire research process. By prioritizing reliable methods and instruments, social scientists can produce insights that genuinely reflect social realities and contribute meaningfully to theory, policy, and practice.

3. 

1. Compare capability deprivation approach with that of social capital deprivation in understanding chronic poverty. (20 marks)

Chronic poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon that cannot be fully understood through income-based metrics alone. Two influential frameworks—the capability deprivation approach and the social capital deprivation approach—offer deeper insights into its structural and relational roots.

Capability Deprivation Approach

The capability approach views poverty not merely as a lack of income or resources, but as a deprivation of basic capabilities—the real freedoms people have to lead lives they value. It shifts the focus from what people have to what they can do and be.

Amartya Sen

• Pioneer of the Capability Approach
• In Development as Freedom (1999), Sen argued that development should be assessed by the expansion of people’s capabilities, not just economic growth.
• Core Idea: Poverty is the inability to achieve functionings—such as being healthy, educated, or participating in community life—due to lack of capabilities.

Martha C. Nussbaum

• Expanded the approach with a normative framework
• In Creating Capabilities (2011), she proposed a list of central human capabilities, such as bodily health, emotions, practical reason, and control over one’s environment.
• Core Idea: A just society must ensure that all individuals have the opportunity to develop and exercise these capabilities.

It understands chronic poverty as a lack of fundamental capabilities—real freedoms and opportunities to lead the kinds of lives individuals value. It highlights deprivations in basic capabilities like nutrition, education, health, and political participation. Chronic poverty here is the persistent inability of individuals to convert resources into valuable functionings due to both personal limitations and social structures restricting access to essential services and freedoms.

Social capital deprivation approach

Social capital refers to the networks, norms, trust, and relationships that enable individuals and communities to function effectively. Social capital deprivation occurs when individuals or groups lack access to these relational resources, leading to social exclusion, limited opportunities, and chronic poverty.

Pierre Bourdieu

• Contribution: Defined social capital as the aggregate of actual or potential resources linked to a durable network of relationships.
• Insight: Poverty is not just economic but also relational—those without strong networks are excluded from opportunities and influence.

Robert Putnam

• Contribution: In Bowling Alone, he emphasized the decline of civic engagement and community ties in the U.S.
• Insight: Weakening social capital leads to reduced trust, cooperation, and collective action, which can deepen poverty and inequality.

Social capital deprivation approach focuses on the absence or erosion of social networks, trust, and reciprocal relationships that provide individuals and communities with access to resources, information, and support. Chronic poverty in this view is intensified by weak social bonds and exclusion from beneficial social connections, which hampers a community’s ability to cope with economic shocks, mobilize collective action, and access opportunities essential for upward mobility.

Together, these frameworks reveal that poverty is not just about income or material lack—it is also about relational isolation and constrained agency. Addressing chronic poverty effectively demands policies that expand individual capabilities while also strengthening social bonds and community participation. Only by integrating both perspectives can we move toward a more inclusive and empowering model of development.

India’s government programs like MGNREGA, National Health Mission, and educational schemes aim to address capability deprivation, while community mobilization and self-help groups work towards rebuilding social capital in marginalized areas.

b. Are pressure groups a threat to or a necessary element of democracy? Explain with suitable illustrations. (20 marks)

Pressure groups are a necessary element of democracy but can also pose certain threats. In the Indian context, pressure groups perform crucial democratic functions by giving voice to marginalized communities, enabling political participation beyond elections, providing expertise to policymakers, and acting as watchdogs against government abuse. They contribute to a more inclusive, accountable, and responsive democratic process. For example, farmers' unions lobby for agricultural policies, women's organizations like SEWA campaign for women-friendly laws, and environmental groups advocate for sustainable policies. Their constitutional right to associate, speak, and assemble underpins their democratic legitimacy.

Necessary in a Democracy

• Interest Articulation: They give voice to diverse societal interests often overlooked by political parties. For example, All India Kisan Sabha has effectively represented farmers’ concerns, especially during the 2020–21 farm law protests.
• Policy Influence: Groups like Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) influence economic policies by representing business interests.
• Democratic Participation: They encourage civic engagement and hold governments accountable. National Alliance of People's Movements (NAPM) has mobilized grassroots activism on issues like displacement and environmental justice.
• Pluralism and Decentralization: According to Robert Dahl’s pluralist theory, pressure groups enrich democracy by dispersing power among various actors, preventing dominance by a single elite.

Potential Threats to Democracy

• Unequal Access and Influence: Wealthy or well-connected groups may exert disproportionate influence. For instance, corporate lobbying can overshadow marginalized voices.
• Lack of Accountability: Unlike political parties, pressure groups are not electorally accountable, which can lead to opaque operations.
• Disruption and Polarization: Aggressive tactics—like strikes or blockades—can disrupt public life and deepen social divides. The Bharat Bandh organized by trade unions sometimes paralyzes essential services.

Illustrations

All India Kisan Sabha and other farmer unions

• Context: Opposition to three farm laws passed by Parliament
• Democratic Role: Mobilized lakhs of farmers, organized peaceful protests, and engaged in dialogue with the government
• Outcome: Laws were repealed after sustained pressure, showing how organized citizen action can influence policy
• Challenge: Prolonged protests disrupted public life and polarized opinion

Indian Medical Association (IMA)

• Pressure Group: IMA, representing doctors and healthcare professionals
• Context: Opposed government policies like the mixopathy proposal (allowing AYUSH practitioners to perform surgeries)
• Democratic Role: Advocated for medical standards, patient safety, and professional autonomy
• Outcome: Raised awareness and forced reconsideration of policy
• Challenge: Critics argue such groups sometimes resist reforms that could benefit underserved areas

Environmental Movements (NAPM, Chipko)

• Pressure Groups: National Alliance of People's Movements (NAPM), Chipko Movement
• Context: Opposed large dams, deforestation, and displacement
• Democratic Role: Raised ecological awareness, protected tribal and rural communities
• Challenge: Development projects delayed or stalled, leading to economic debates

These examples show that pressure groups are integral to Indian democracy, acting as watchdogs, advocates, and mobilizers. Yet, their influence must be balanced to avoid undermining democratic institutions or public interest.

c. What is hypothesis? Critically evaluate the significance of hypothesis in social research. (10 marks)

A hypothesis is a logically constructed proposition that suggests a possible explanation or relationship between two or more variables. It is not a mere guess, but a statement derived from theory, prior research, or observation, intended for empirical testing.

Significance

• Guides Research Design
  Hypotheses help researchers choose appropriate methods, tools, and variables. For instance, a study on caste and voting behavior may hypothesize that caste identity influences electoral choices, guiding survey design.
• Focuses Inquiry
  It narrows the scope of investigation, preventing aimless data collection. This is crucial in complex social settings with multiple influencing factors.
• Enables Empirical Testing
  Hypotheses allow researchers to test theories against real-world data, strengthening or refuting existing knowledge.
• Promotes Objectivity
  By stating expectations upfront, researchers reduce bias and increase transparency in analysis.
• Facilitates Theory Building
  Confirmed hypotheses contribute to the development of broader sociological theories, such as modernization theory or conflict theory.

Limitations

• Not Always Applicable
  In qualitative research, especially ethnography or grounded theory, hypotheses may be absent or evolve during the study.
• Risk of Oversimplification
  Social phenomena are complex and multi-causal. A rigid hypothesis might ignore nuances like intersectionality or cultural context.
• Confirmation Bias
  Researchers may unconsciously seek data that supports their hypothesis, undermining objectivity.
• Ethical and Cultural Constraints
  Some hypotheses may be difficult to test due to ethical concerns or cultural sensitivities—e.g., studying domestic violence in conservative communities.

Example

• Study: Impact of social media on youth political awareness
• Hypothesis: “Youth who use social media daily are more politically aware than those who don’t.”
• Significance: This hypothesis helps define variables (social media usage, political awareness), guides data collection (surveys, interviews), and enables analysis (correlation, regression).

While hypotheses are indispensable in quantitative social research, their role in qualitative studies is more flexible. A well-formulated hypothesis enhances clarity, rigor, and relevance—but researchers must remain open to complexity and emergent insights.

4.

a. Give an account of the recent trends of marriage in the Indian context. How are these different from traditional practices? (20 marks)

Recent trends in marriage in India reflect a significant shift from traditional practices, with a clear movement towards individual choice, delayed unions, inter-caste acceptance, and personalized wedding celebrations, contrasting strongly with the older norms of arranged, early, and endogamous marriages rooted in family and caste obligations.

Major Recent Trends in Indian Marriages

• There is a notable rise in “love marriages” and self-choice unions, especially among urban and educated youth, reducing parental and community control that once dominated the institution.
• The mean age of marriage, particularly for women, has increased. In 2023, the average age for rural women was 22.4 years while urban women married at 24.3, indicating a broader trend of delayed marriages for greater emotional and financial readiness.
• Inter-caste and inter-community marriages, previously rare and stigmatized, are now more widely accepted, with compatibility and shared values increasingly prioritized over caste or communal boundaries.
• Nuclear families are now preferred over joint families, with autonomy and personal privacy valued highly by newlywed couples, representing a clear break from the joint family tradition.
• Non-marital cohabitation and live-in relationships, once culturally taboo, are emerging in urban areas, suggesting a re-examination of formal marriage as the only acceptable form of adult partnership.
• Technology and matrimonial apps have transformed matchmaking, making partner search more efficient and broadening the pool beyond geographic and social boundaries. The digital rise has replaced relatives and newspaper advertisements as primary matchmakers.
• Eco-friendly, personalized, and intimate (“micro-luxury”) weddings have gained prominence—a move from large, traditional ceremonies to smaller gatherings that reflect the couple’s values and personalities.
• Increasing numbers of couples are opting for premarital counseling, emphasizing readiness, emotional maturity, and compatibility, a trend that aligns with broader global influences and changing social attitudes.

Thinkers and Studies on Indian Marriage Trends

• G.S. Ghurye, a pioneer in Indian sociology, suggested ideal marriage ages and analyzed traditional caste-endogamous marriage patterns. He noted that while caste restrictions historically dominated mate selection, urbanization and education have weakened these rigidities, promoting inter-caste unions and more freedom in mate choice.
• Yogendra Singh emphasized the gradual shift from purely parental arranged marriages to a more joint decision-making process involving both parents and children, especially in urban middle classes. He pointed out the rise of personal choice balanced with family approval.
• M.N. Srinivas highlighted the impact of western education and industrialization leading to "marriage as a social contract" rather than a sacrament, changing the institution toward companionship and individual happiness.
• Studies by P.N. Ruwali and others showed that modern educated women increasingly expect marriages to fulfill emotional and psychological needs beyond traditional familial duties, indicating an expanding dimension of marital expectations.
• Research documented by Alaka Malwade Basu revealed that while arranged marriages remain predominant, youth increasingly exert veto power and follow evolving customs blending traditional and modern patterns.
• Kapur’s study on educated working women reflects growing disapproval of purely arranged or purely love marriages, favoring a "modern arranged marriage" model that incorporates mutual consent and rationality.
• Trends toward delayed marriage, rising acceptance of love marriages, growth of nuclear families, and the use of matrimonial technology platforms have been confirmed in multiple sociological analyses emphasizing urbanization and globalization.
• Studies also address emerging phenomena such as live-in relationships, premarital counseling, and smaller, personalized weddings signaling an adaptive, dynamic institution responding to changing societal needs.

These insights enrich the understanding of recent marriage trends in India in contrast to traditional practices.

The modern trends demonstrate a growing emphasis on individual autonomy, emotional compatibility, and evolving social values—marking a significant transition from the more rigid, family-centric traditional framework of Indian marriages.

b. What would you identify as the similarities and differences in the elite theories of Mosca, Michels and Pareto? Discuss their main/crucial issues. (20 marks)

Mosca, Michels, and Pareto all argue that elite rule is inevitable in society, but they differ in how elites are formed, maintained, and justified. Their theories highlight key issues like the circulation of elites, organizational dynamics, and the myth of democracy.

Similarities  

• All three theorists agree that society is fundamentally divided between a small ruling elite and a large non-elite majority, emphasizing minority rule over the masses.
• They recognize the inevitability of elite domination due to organizational superiority, the concentration of power, and leadership abilities concentrated among a select few.
• Each thinker acknowledges social stratification and the persistence of elites over time, highlighting continuous power dynamics rather than democratic equality.
• Their theories critically view democracy, warning that elite rule often consolidates within few hands even in ostensibly democratic settings.

Differences

Main/Crucial Issues Addressed

• Mosca's Theory of the Ruling Class focuses on the organizational superiority of a small minority who rule due to their ability to be more effectively organized than the masses. He argues elite rule is inevitable and stable but requires legitimation through political formula (ideology). He highlights the need for elite accommodation of masses to maintain power.
• Pareto's Circulation of Elites theory centers on the continual replacement of elites. New elites arise by supplanting old ones due to social mobility or changes in economic, political, or ideological contours. He categorizes elites by psychological traits (foxes and lions) and stresses elite flexibility and adaptability in maintaining power.
• Michels' Iron Law of Oligarchy posits that all organizations, even democratic ones, inherently evolve into oligarchies led by a few leaders who monopolize power. He contends that elite rule is entrenched by internal organizational dynamics rather than social or hereditary factors.

These theories influenced modern political sociology, especially critiques of liberal democracy and Marxism. - They laid the groundwork for understanding power dynamics in institutions, revolutions, and leadership transitions.

c. Critically analyze the sociological significance of informal sector in the economy of developing societies. (10 marks)

The informal sector holds crucial sociological significance in the economies of developing societies, acting as both a source of livelihood and a structural feature shaping social and economic relations.

Sociological Significance

• Employment Provider: The informal sector is the primary employment source for a large proportion of the population in developing countries, often exceeding the formal sector in numbers. It absorbs labor that cannot find opportunities in formal jobs, thus acting as a buffer against unemployment and social unrest.
• Inclusivity and Social Safety Net: It provides survival opportunities for marginalized groups, including women, migrants, and the urban and rural poor, who face exclusion from formal labor markets due to lack of education, skills, or discrimination.
• Flexibility and Entrepreneurship: The sector encourages entrepreneurial activities and flexibility, allowing individuals to innovate and sustain livelihoods despite minimal capital and regulatory barriers, shaping distinct social networks and community-based economies.
• Gender Dynamics: Women constitute a significant share of informal workers but face lower wages, gender-based discrimination, and restricted access to resources, highlighting the intersection of informality with social inequities in gender roles and labor.
• Social Stratification and Labor Market Segmentation: The existence of informal work reflects and reinforces social stratification, often marking a dichotomy between formal, stable employment and informal, precarious work, underscoring issues of social inequality and exclusion.
• Cultural and Social Networks: Informal activities often rely on kinship ties, social trust, and community reciprocity, forming a unique sociological fabric that sustains economic activities outside formal institutions.

Thinkers and Their Studies

• Keith Hart (1970s): Often credited with pioneering the study of the informal economy in developing countries, Hart argued that the informal sector is not just a survival mechanism but an integral, dynamic part of capitalist development. He highlighted its role in providing employment and entrepreneurial opportunities beyond the formal economy, particularly in urban African contexts.
• Keith Hart and Caroline Moser: Discussed how the informal sector acts as an arena of entrepreneurship and innovation for marginalized groups, especially women, shaping gendered labor dynamics and social roles within developing societies.
• Janice Perlman: Studied informal settlements and economies, emphasizing the sector's social organization and its role in urban poverty alleviation and social mobility.
• Alan Gilbert: His research highlighted the double-edged nature of the informal sector—providing livelihood yet perpetuating poverty and exclusion due to precariousness and lack of social protection.
• S.R. Kulshreshtha: Defined the informal sector sociologically as those economic activities that are self-employed, family-based, lacking formal labor protections, emphasizing its contribution to livelihood despite vulnerability risks.

Critical Issues

• Poverty and Vulnerability: While providing employment, informal sector jobs often lack job security, social protection, and adequate income, perpetuating cycles of poverty and vulnerability rather than offering upward social mobility.
• Economic Growth and Taxation: Informal enterprises tend to be small-scale with limited productivity and do not contribute to government revenues through taxation, limiting state capacity to provide public goods and social welfare.
• Policy Challenges: Integrating the informal sector into formal economies remains complex; policies must balance regulation with protection and support, acknowledging the sector's heterogeneity and social importance.
• Sustainability and Development: The informal economy’s rapid expansion impacts sustainable development, requiring innovative approaches to leverage its resilience while addressing exploitative labor conditions and environmental effects.

Despite its crucial role, the sector poses challenges related to labor rights, economic productivity, and policy formulation. Understanding these sociological dimensions is essential for crafting inclusive development strategies that empower vulnerable populations while promoting sustainable economic growth.

SECTION B

5.  Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :  10×5 = 50 Marks

a. In what way is the scope of sociology unique? Explain.

The scope of sociology is unique because it studies society in its totality, connecting individual behavior with larger social structures, and synthesizing insights across economics, politics, psychology, and culture to reveal how relationships, institutions, and values shape human life. Unlike other social sciences that focus on one dimension, sociology provides a holistic and critical lens on the entire social fabric.

Sociology’s Scope is Distinct because of the following reasons: -

Holistic Perspective

• Economics studies wealth and markets, political science studies power and governance, psychology studies the mind.
• Sociology integrates all these dimensions, examining how they interact in everyday life.
• Example: Poverty is not just economic—it involves caste, gender, education, family, and cultural norms.

Focus on Social Facts and Structures

• Emile Durkheim emphasized that sociology studies social facts—patterns, norms, and institutions that exist outside the individual but shape behavior.
• This makes sociology distinct from psychology, which focuses on individual mental processes.

Micro–Macro Link

• Sociology uniquely connects micro-level interactions (family, peer groups, everyday communication) with macro-level structures (state, economy, global systems).
• Example: How globalization affects local family traditions or how caste influences workplace dynamics.

Interdisciplinary and Synthesizing Role

• Auguste Comte called sociology the “queen of sciences” because it synthesizes knowledge across disciplines.
• It borrows methods from history, anthropology, economics, and political science but applies them to understand society as a whole.

Critical and Reflexive Approach

• Sociology questions taken-for-granted norms, exposing inequalities and power relations.
• Example: Feminist sociology critiques patriarchal structures; postcolonial sociology highlights global inequalities.

Sociology’s scope is unique because it does not isolate one aspect of human life but studies society as an interconnected whole. Sociology’s scope is unique in India because it bridges tradition and modernity, explaining how ancient institutions like caste and religion interact with contemporary forces like democracy, globalization, and social movements. This makes sociology indispensable for understanding India’s complex social fabric.

b. Does the structural-functionalist perspective on social stratification promote a status quo? Give reasons for your answer.

The structural-functionalist perspective on social stratification tends to promote the status quo, because it interprets inequality as a necessary and functional part of society rather than as a problem to be dismantled.

• Core Idea: Society is like a system where every part has a role. Stratification (ranking people by wealth, power, prestige) ensures that the most important roles are filled by the most qualified individuals.
• Key Theorists: Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945) argued that unequal rewards motivate people to train for and perform socially valuable roles (e.g., doctors, scientists).

The structural-functionalist perspective promotes the status quo, as reasoned through the following points.

Legitimization of Inequality

• Stratification is explained as functional and necessary for society.
• This interpretation justifies existing hierarchies rather than challenging them.

Encouragement of Stability

• Functionalists emphasize social order and consensus.
• Inequality is seen as part of the system that maintains stability, discouraging radical change.

Meritocratic Assumption

• Rewards are believed to be distributed based on merit and importance of roles.
• This masks structural barriers (like caste, class, or gender) and preserves current arrangements.

Neglect of Power and Exploitation

• The perspective overlooks how elites maintain dominance through control of resources and institutions.
• By ignoring exploitation, it sustains existing power relations.

Resistance to Reform

• If inequality is viewed as natural and beneficial, reform efforts appear unnecessary or even harmful.
• This discourages redistribution or structural transformation.

India

• Caste System: A functionalist might argue caste divisions historically organized labor and maintained social order.
• But this interpretation legitimizes inequality and discourages dismantling caste hierarchies, thereby promoting the status quo.

Structural-functionalist perspective advanced by sociologists like Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, posits that social inequality is necessary and functional for society.

c. Do you think that the formal workspaces are free of gender bias? Argue your case.

Formal workspaces are not free of gender bias, even though many organizations claim to uphold equality.

Persistent data and patterns reveal systemic inequalities that undermine equal opportunities despite formal policies.

Hiring and Promotion

• Women often face glass ceilings, where they are underrepresented in top leadership roles despite equal qualifications.
• Studies show men are more likely to be promoted based on potential, while women are judged on proven performance.

Pay Gap

• Across industries, women earn less than men for the same work.
• This wage disparity reflects systemic undervaluation of women’s contributions.

Workplace Culture

• Formal workspaces often carry implicit biases:
• Women may be interrupted more in meetings.
• Leadership traits like assertiveness are praised in men but labeled “aggressive” in women.

Division of Labor

• Women are disproportionately assigned “soft” roles (HR, support, coordination) rather than high-visibility, revenue-generating positions.
• This limits their chances of advancement.

Intersectionality

• Bias is compounded for women from marginalized communities (e.g., caste, race, or class), making formal workspaces even less equitable.

India

• Despite legal protections, women remain underrepresented in corporate boards and senior management.
• Sectors like IT and banking show progress, but gender bias still shapes pay, promotions, and leadership visibility.

Formal workspaces are not free of gender bias. While policies and awareness campaigns exist, structural inequalities, cultural stereotypes, and implicit biases continue to reproduce unequal outcomes. True equality requires not just formal rules but transforming workplace culture and practices.

d. How does Weber''s Verstehen address the objectivity-subjectivity debate in sociology?

Max Weber’s concept of Verstehen (German for “understanding” or “interpretive comprehension”) is central to how sociology navigates the objectivity–subjectivity debate. Let’s break it down:

• Objectivity: Positivist thinkers (like Comte and Durkheim) argued sociology should be as objective as natural sciences, focusing on measurable social facts.
• Subjectivity: Critics noted that human behavior is shaped by meanings, intentions, and values, which cannot be fully captured through detached observation.

Weber’s Verstehen

Weber introduced Verstehen as a method of interpretive understanding:

• Sociologists must grasp the subjective meanings individuals attach to their actions.
• Example: A worker striking is not just “absence from work” (objective fact), but an act of protest with meaning (subjective intention).

Verstehen Bridges Objectivity and Subjectivity

Acknowledges Subjective Meaning

• Human actions are meaningful, so sociology must interpret motives, values, and cultural contexts.
• This prevents reducing people to mere data points.

Maintains Scientific Rigor

• Weber insisted that while sociologists interpret meanings, they must do so systematically and avoid imposing personal values.
• This ensures objectivity in method, even when studying subjective experiences.

Combines Explanation and Understanding

• Weber distinguished between Erklären (causal explanation) and Verstehen (interpretive understanding).
• Sociology requires both: explaining social outcomes and understanding the meanings behind them.

Value-Neutrality

• Weber argued sociologists should practice Wertfreiheit (value neutrality).
• They can study values but must not let their own values distort analysis.

Example

• Studying religion and economy: In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber used Verstehen to interpret how Protestant beliefs shaped economic behavior.
• He combined subjective meaning (religious motivation) with objective outcomes (rise of capitalism).

Weber’s Verstehen addresses the objectivity–subjectivity debate by showing that sociology must:

• Interpret subjective meanings to understand human action.
• Apply objective, systematic methods to ensure scientific validity.
  Thus, sociology becomes a discipline that is both interpretive and empirical, bridging the gap between subjective experience and objective analysis.

e. To what extent can education and skill development be an agent of social change? Critically analyze.

Education and skill development can be significant agents of social change to a moderate extent, as they foster individual empowerment and societal progress, but their impact is often constrained by structural barriers and unequal access.

Positive Contributions

Education challenges traditional norms by promoting critical thinking, literacy, and awareness of social issues like caste, gender inequality, and poverty, enabling upward mobility and reform movements. Skill development equips marginalized groups with economic tools, reducing unemployment and dependency, as seen in vocational programs that integrate women and rural populations into formal economies. Collectively, these shifts attitudes toward inclusivity, democracy, and innovation, driving gradual modernization in developing societies.

Limitations and Critiques

Despite potential, education often reproduces inequalities through elitist curricula and unequal access, benefiting privileged classes while excluding the poor, as formal systems mirror existing power structures. Skill training may prioritize market demands over holistic change, creating a compliant workforce rather than radicals, and rapid technological shifts can obsolete skills without addressing root causes like corruption or discrimination. Empirical evidence shows persistent gaps, such as higher dropout rates among disadvantaged groups, limiting transformative scale.

In conclusion, while education can spark incremental social change—such as literacy campaigns reducing child marriage—its transformative potential depends on supportive policies and equitable access. Without these, education risks reinforcing the status quo rather than disrupting it. Genuine social overhaul, therefore, requires complementary forces like strong political will and equitable economic redistribution.

6. 

a. What is science? Do you think that the methods used in natural sciences can be applied to sociology? Give reasons for your answer. (20 marks)

Science is a systematic and organized body of knowledge that seeks to explain phenomena through observation, experimentation, and reasoning.

• It relies on empirical evidence (facts derived from observation/experience).
• It uses objective methods (measurement, testing, verification).
• Its goal is to establish general laws or theories that can predict and explain outcomes.

Natural Science Methods Be Applied to Sociology?

Arguments in Favor

Scientific Rigor

• • Sociology, like natural sciences, studies patterns and seeks explanations.
  • Methods such as surveys, statistical analysis, and experiments bring objectivity.

Comparability

• • Just as biology studies living organisms, sociology studies social organisms (groups, institutions).
  • Both aim to uncover laws of behavior.

Predictive Value

• • Quantitative methods allow sociologists to predict trends (e.g., population growth, crime rates).

Durkheim’s Example

• • Durkheim treated “social facts” as things external to individuals, studying them scientifically (e.g., his study of suicide used statistical data).

Arguments Against

Human Subjectivity

• • Unlike natural phenomena, human behavior is shaped by meanings, values, and intentions.
  • These cannot be fully captured by purely objective methods.

Contextual Variability

• • Social behavior changes across cultures and time; universal laws are harder to establish.

Interpretive Dimension

• • Max Weber argued sociology requires Verstehen (interpretive understanding) to grasp subjective meanings, not just measurement.

Ethical Constraints

• • Experiments in sociology face ethical limits (e.g., manipulating people’s lives), unlike controlled lab experiments in physics or chemistry.

Example: Dowry Practices

• Natural science approach: Collecting data on dowry-related crimes (e.g., NCRB statistics on dowry deaths).
• Interpretive approach: Understanding the cultural meanings attached to dowry, such as family honor or social status.
• Balance: Data highlights the scale of the problem, while interpretive analysis explains why the practice persists despite being illegal.

While sociology can adopt scientific methods (statistics, surveys, causal analysis) to ensure rigor, it cannot rely on them exclusively. Human society involves subjective meanings, cultural contexts, and ethical complexities that demand interpretive approaches alongside scientific ones. Thus, sociology is both a science and an interpretive discipline, blending natural science methods with unique tools suited to understanding human social life.

b. What do you understand by gender-based domestic division of labour? Is it undergoing a change in the wake of increasing participation of women in formal employment? Clarify your answer with illustrations. (20 marks)

Gender-based domestic division of labour refers to the socially constructed allocation of unpaid household tasks and caregiving roles along gender lines, where women traditionally bear the bulk of domestic responsibilities like cooking, cleaning, childcare, and eldercare, while men focus on income-generating activities. This stems from patriarchal norms that confine women to the private sphere, reinforcing gender inequality and limiting their public participation.

With the increasing participation of women in formal employment, this division is indeed undergoing change, but unevenly:

Shift in Roles

• Working women contribute economically, challenging the stereotype of men as sole providers.
• Dual-income households are more common, leading to renegotiation of domestic responsibilities.

Emergence of Shared Responsibilities

• In urban middle-class families, men increasingly participate in childcare, cooking, and household chores.
• Example: In metropolitan India, professional couples often share tasks like dropping children at school or managing groceries.

Persistence of Double Burden

• Despite change, women often face the “double burden”—formal employment plus primary responsibility for domestic work.
• Example: Surveys in India show women spend significantly more hours on unpaid domestic labour compared to men, even when both are employed.

Role of Technology and Services

• Access to domestic appliances, food delivery, and paid domestic help has eased women’s workload, but does not fully eliminate gender bias.

Illustrations

• India’s Time Use Survey (2019): Women spent nearly 4.5 hours daily on unpaid domestic work, while men spent less than 1 hour, highlighting persistent inequality.
• Corporate Sector: Policies like paternity leave and flexible work hours are slowly encouraging men’s involvement in caregiving.
• Urban Families: In nuclear households, men’s participation is higher compared to joint families, where traditional norms remain stronger.

The gender-based domestic division of labour is undergoing gradual change due to women’s rising participation in formal employment, urbanization, and policy support. However, the persistence of patriarchal norms and the double burden means that transformation is incomplete. True equality requires not only women’s economic participation but also a cultural shift in how domestic responsibilities are valued and shared.

c. How can you assess the significance of social movements in the digital era? Explain. (10 marks)

Social movements are collective efforts to bring about, resist, or undo social change.

Social movements in the digital era are highly significant because they leverage social media, mobile technology, and online networks to mobilize people rapidly, amplify marginalized voices, and challenge dominant power structures on a global scale. The digital sphere extends the street, creating what Manuel Castells calls a “networked society” where resistance circulates through digital networks.

Significance

Enhanced Mobilization

• Online platforms enable rapid, cost-effective mobilization without traditional hierarchies.
• Example: Arab Spring (2010–11) used Facebook and Twitter to coordinate protests and bypass state-controlled media.

Global Connectivity

• Movements transcend national boundaries, linking local struggles to global audiences.
• Example: #MeToo movement spread across continents, reshaping conversations on gender and power.

Amplification of Marginalized Voices

• Digital tools allow marginalized groups to bypass mainstream media.
• Example: Dalit activists in India use Twitter and YouTube to highlight caste discrimination.

Decentralized Organization

• Movements operate through horizontal networks rather than centralized leadership.
• This makes them flexible and harder to suppress.

Real-Time Communication

• WhatsApp groups, Telegram channels, and live streams enable instant coordination during protests.
• Example: Farmers’ protests in India (2020–21) used digital platforms to mobilize and sustain momentum.

Limitations

Slacktivism

• Online activism often remains symbolic (likes, shares, hashtags) without translating into sustained offline action.

Surveillance and Censorship

• Governments and corporations monitor digital activity, track dissent, and sometimes suppress movements through internet shutdowns or content removal.

Misinformation and Manipulation

• Fake news, propaganda, and algorithmic biases can distort the goals of movements or delegitimize them.

Digital Divide

• Unequal access to internet and technology excludes rural, poor, and marginalized groups, limiting inclusivity and reach.

Fragmentation and Lack of Leadership

• Decentralized, networked movements may struggle with coordination, long-term strategy, and accountability.

Short Attention Span

• Online trends can fade quickly, making it difficult for movements to sustain momentum over time.

The significance of social movements in the digital era lies in their capacity to mobilize rapidly, connect globally, and amplify marginalized voices. Yet, their transformative potential depends on overcoming challenges like surveillance, misinformation, and unequal access. In essence, the digital era has not replaced traditional street protests but has extended and reshaped them, making social movements more dynamic, visible, and impactful than ever before.

7. 

a. What is sampling in the context of social research? Discuss different forms of sampling with their relative advantages and disadvantages. (20 marks)

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units from a larger population to study, with the aim of making inferences about the entire population.

• It is necessary because studying the whole population is often impractical due to time, cost, and accessibility constraints.
• A good sample should be representative, ensuring that findings can be generalized.

Forms of Sampling

Probability Sampling

In this method, every unit in the population has a known chance of being selected.

• Simple Random Sampling

• • Each individual has an equal chance of selection.
  • Advantage: Highly representative, minimizes bias.
  • Disadvantage: Requires complete population list; can be costly.

• Systematic Sampling

• • Selecting every kth unit from a list.
  • Advantage: Easy to implement, less time-consuming.
  • Disadvantage: Risk of bias if list has hidden patterns.

• Stratified Sampling

• • Population divided into strata (e.g., caste, gender), and samples drawn proportionally.
  • Advantage: Ensures representation of key subgroups.
  • Disadvantage: Requires detailed population information.

• Cluster Sampling

• • Population divided into clusters (e.g., villages, schools), and some clusters are randomly chosen.
  • Advantage: Cost-effective for large, dispersed populations.
  • Disadvantage: Less precise; higher sampling error.

Non-Probability Sampling

Here, selection is based on researcher’s judgment or convenience, not random chance.

• Convenience Sampling

• • Selecting whoever is easiest to reach.
  • Advantage: Quick, inexpensive.
  • Disadvantage: Highly biased, poor generalizability.

• Purposive Sampling

• • Choosing individuals with specific characteristics relevant to the study.
  • Advantage: Useful for qualitative research and rare populations.
  • Disadvantage: Subjective, prone to researcher bias.

• Snowball Sampling

• • Existing participants recruit others (common in hidden populations like drug users).
  • Advantage: Effective for hard-to-reach groups.
  • Disadvantage: Sample may be homogeneous and unrepresentative.

• Quota Sampling

• • Ensuring sample reflects certain characteristics in proportion (e.g., gender, age).
  • Advantage: Ensures subgroup representation without randomization.
  • Disadvantage: Still prone to bias since selection is non-random.

Sampling is a cornerstone of social research, enabling researchers to study populations efficiently. Probability sampling is more reliable for generalization, while non-probability sampling is useful in exploratory or qualitative contexts. The choice depends on research goals, resources, and the nature of the population.

b. How do theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim differ in understanding religion? Explain. (20 marks)

Religion has been a central concern of classical sociology, with Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim offering distinct perspectives. Each situates religion within broader social structures, but their interpretations diverge in terms of function, meaning, and impact. Marx views religion as an instrument of domination, Weber emphasizes its role in shaping economic and cultural change, while Durkheim highlights its integrative and social functions. These theories can be meaningfully applied to the Indian context, where religion has historically shaped social hierarchy, economic life, and collective identity.

Marx: Religion as Ideology and Illusion

• Marx famously described religion as the “opium of the people”, a tool that dulls the pain of exploitation.
• For him, religion is part of the superstructure, reflecting and reinforcing the economic base of society.
• In India, Marx’s perspective resonates with the caste system, where religious doctrines historically legitimized inequality and justified the privileges of upper castes.
• Religion thus becomes a conservative force, discouraging revolutionary change by promising spiritual rewards and reinforcing social stratification.

Weber: Religion as a Force for Social Change

• Weber argued that religion can actively shape economic and social life.
• In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, he showed how Calvinist beliefs fostered rational economic behavior.
• Applied to India, Weber’s ideas illuminate how Hindu ascetic traditions or the Bhakti movement influenced cultural and economic practices. For instance, the emphasis on discipline and renunciation in certain sects shaped attitudes toward work and wealth.
• Similarly, Sikhism’s stress on equality and community service has historically motivated social reform and collective enterprise.
• Religion, therefore, is not merely reflective of material conditions but can drive transformation in Indian society.

Durkheim: Religion as Social Cohesion

• Durkheim approached religion as a social institution that binds individuals into a moral community.
• In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, he argued that rituals and symbols represent the collective conscience.
• In India, festivals such as Diwali, Eid, and Pongal exemplify Durkheim’s thesis: they reinforce solidarity, reaffirm shared values, and integrate diverse communities.
• Even in secular contexts, national rituals like Republic Day parades function as a kind of “civil religion,” strengthening collective identity across religious divides.

Marx, Weber, and Durkheim offer contrasting yet complementary insights into religion. Marx highlights its role in perpetuating inequality, Weber demonstrates its capacity to inspire social transformation, and Durkheim underscores its integrative function. In India, these perspectives illuminate how religion both sustains social hierarchies and inspires reform, while also binding communities together through ritual and shared identity. A nuanced understanding of religion requires engaging with all three perspectives, as each illuminates dimensions the others overlook.

c. What is the nature of relationship between science and religion in modern society? Analyse with suitable examples. (10 marks)

Science and religion are two powerful forces shaping human thought and society. While science is grounded in empirical evidence and rational inquiry, religion is rooted in faith, tradition, and moral values. In modern society, their relationship is neither purely antagonistic nor wholly harmonious; instead, it is dynamic, ranging from conflict to cooperation. Analysing this relationship reveals how both domains continue to influence social life, ethics, and progress.

Conflict Perspective

• Science vs. Creationism: In Western societies, debates over evolution versus creationism highlight direct clashes.
• Medical Ethics: Stem cell research, cloning, and euthanasia often face opposition from religious groups.
• Indian Example: Superstitious practices sometimes conflict with scientific health measures, such as resistance to vaccination campaigns due to religious beliefs.

Independence Perspective

• Non-Overlapping Domains: Stephen Jay Gould’s idea of “Non-Overlapping Magisteria” suggests science explains the natural world, while religion addresses meaning and morality.
• Indian Example: Many Indians consult doctors for medical treatment but also perform religious rituals for spiritual comfort, showing parallel but independent roles.

Dialogue Perspective

• Bioethics and Environment: Religious leaders and scientists collaborate on issues like climate change, genetic engineering, and AI ethics.
• Indian Example: Hindu and Buddhist teachings on ecological harmony align with scientific calls for sustainability, creating a dialogue between spiritual values and environmental science.

Integration Perspective

• Holistic Approaches: In some contexts, science and religion merge to form integrated worldviews.
• Indian Example: Ayurveda and Yoga blend spiritual traditions with modern scientific validation. Yoga is now studied globally for health benefits, while retaining its religious-philosophical roots.
• Festivals and Technology: Eco-friendly innovations during Diwali or Ganesh Chaturthi show integration of scientific awareness with religious practice.

Sociological Analysis

• Auguste Comte: Saw knowledge progressing from theological to metaphysical to scientific stages, implying religion would decline as science advanced.
• Durkheim: Religion provides social cohesion; science cannot replace its symbolic and ritual functions.
• Weber: Religious ideas (e.g., Protestant ethic) can shape rational economic behavior, showing religion’s influence on modernity.
• Marx: Religion as ideology, often resisting scientific rationality, but also challenged by materialist science.

The relationship between science and religion in modern society is multifaceted. At times they conflict, at times they coexist independently, and often they engage in dialogue or integration. In India, this dynamic is especially visible: science challenges traditional hierarchies, religion inspires ecological ethics, and both combine in practices like Yoga and Ayurveda. Ultimately, modern society requires both — science for progress and religion for meaning — making their interplay essential for addressing contemporary challenges.

8. 

a. What do you understand by sustainable development? Discuss the elements of sustainable development as proposed in the UNDP''s Sustainable Development Goals Report–2015. (20 marks)

Sustainable development is not merely an economic or environmental agenda; it is a social project that reshapes how societies organize themselves. Defined by the Brundtland Commission (1987) as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,” it integrates social justice, cultural values, and collective responsibility. The UNDP’s 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) crystallized this vision into five core elements — People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnership — which sociologists interpret as mechanisms for balancing structure, agency, and global solidarity.

Sociological Understanding of Sustainable Development

From a sociological perspective, sustainable development can be understood through classical theories. Functionalists such as Durkheim would argue that it promotes social cohesion by aligning economic growth with collective moral responsibility. Marxist theorists, however, see it as a response to structural inequalities, aiming to redistribute resources and challenge exploitative systems. Weber’s lens highlights rationalization, where ethical and scientific principles are institutionalized into bureaucratic frameworks like the SDGs. Globalization theory further emphasizes how sustainability reflects the interconnectedness of societies, showing how local actions link to global outcomes.

Elements of Sustainable Development in the UNDP SDGs Report (2015)

The first element, People, emphasizes ending poverty and hunger while ensuring dignity and equality. This reflects sociology’s concern with social inclusion and equity. In India, initiatives such as the Jan Dhan Yojana for financial inclusion or the Mid-Day Meal Programme for schoolchildren embody this principle by addressing basic needs and reducing inequality.

The second element, Planet, highlights the collective responsibility of societies to protect natural resources and combat climate change. Durkheim’s idea of shared moral values resonates here, as environmental stewardship becomes a collective conscience. India’s leadership in the International Solar Alliance illustrates how nations can mobilize around ecological responsibility.

The third element, Prosperity, links economic growth to social justice. From a Marxist perspective, this challenges the exploitative tendencies of capitalism by promoting inclusive development. Policies such as Make in India aim to foster industrial growth while ensuring that prosperity is widely shared, reflecting the sociological concern with distributive justice.

The fourth element, Peace, stresses the importance of fostering peaceful, just, and inclusive societies. Weber’s emphasis on rational-legal authority is relevant here, as strong institutions are necessary for stability and fairness. India’s democratic framework and rights-based legislations, such as the Right to Information Act, embody this principle by strengthening accountability and justice.

Finally, Partnership underscores the need for global solidarity and cooperation. This reflects globalization and world-systems theory, which highlight the interdependence of nations. India’s active role in climate negotiations and South-South cooperation demonstrates how partnerships are essential for achieving sustainability across borders.

Indian Context

In India, sustainable development must confront deep-rooted social inequalities such as caste, gender, and rural-urban divides. At the same time, cultural integration is vital: traditional practices like Ayurveda and Yoga show how indigenous knowledge systems can align with global sustainability goals. National campaigns such as Swachh Bharat Abhiyan function almost like a “civil religion,” mobilizing citizens around shared values of cleanliness and collective responsibility. These examples illustrate how sustainable development is not only about technical progress but also about reshaping social relations and cultural practices.

From a sociological perspective, sustainable development is about restructuring social relations to ensure equity, solidarity, and ecological balance. The UNDP’s 2015 SDGs, framed through the five elements of People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnership, highlight how development is not only technical but deeply social. In India and globally, achieving sustainability requires addressing structural inequalities, fostering collective identities, and building partnerships across cultures and nations. Thus, sustainable development is best understood as a social contract between present and future generations.

b. How do Civil Society Organizations such as NGOs and Self-Help Groups contribute to grassroot level social changes? Discuss. (20 marks)

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), including Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Self-Help Groups (SHGs), play a crucial role in democratizing development and empowering marginalized communities. Operating outside the formal state apparatus, they act as intermediaries between the state and society, mobilizing resources, raising awareness, and fostering participation. From a sociological perspective, CSOs embody collective action, social capital, and participatory democracy, thereby contributing to transformative change at the grassroots level.

NGOs and Grassroots Change

NGOs are voluntary, non-profit organizations that address social, economic, and environmental issues. Their contributions include:

• Service Delivery: NGOs provide education, healthcare, sanitation, and livelihood support in areas where state capacity is weak. For example, Pratham has improved literacy among children in rural India.
• Awareness and Advocacy: They mobilize communities around rights-based issues such as gender equality, environmental protection, and human rights.
• Capacity Building: NGOs train local communities in skills, leadership, and entrepreneurship, fostering self-reliance.
• Policy Influence: By lobbying and advocacy, NGOs shape public policy to be more inclusive, as seen in campaigns for the Right to Information Act and Forest Rights Act in India.

Self-Help Groups and Grassroots Empowerment

SHGs are small, community-based groups, often composed of women, that pool savings and provide microcredit. Their contributions include:

• Economic Empowerment: SHGs enable access to credit, reduce dependence on moneylenders, and promote small-scale entrepreneurship. The SHG-Bank Linkage Programme in India has transformed rural women’s financial autonomy.
• Social Capital: SHGs foster solidarity, trust, and collective identity, echoing Durkheim’s idea of social cohesion.
• Gender Empowerment: Women’s SHGs challenge patriarchal norms by giving women decision-making power in households and communities.
• Community Development: SHGs often expand into health, education, and sanitation initiatives, becoming agents of holistic development.

Sociological Analysis

• Functionalist Perspective: CSOs fill gaps left by the state, ensuring social stability and cohesion.
• Conflict Perspective: They challenge structural inequalities by empowering marginalized groups and resisting elite domination.
• Weberian Lens: CSOs embody rational-legal authority through organized, rule-based structures that enhance accountability.
• Social Capital Theory (Putnam): NGOs and SHGs build networks of trust and reciprocity, strengthening democratic participation.

Indian Context

In India, CSOs have been pivotal in grassroots transformation:

• NGOs like SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association) empower informal workers.
• SHGs under the National Rural Livelihood Mission have mobilized millions of women into collective action.
• Campaigns led by civil society have advanced rights-based legislation, such as the Right to Education Act.
• During crises (e.g., COVID-19), NGOs provided relief, healthcare awareness, and digital education, bridging state capacity gaps.

Civil Society Organizations such as NGOs and SHGs are vital agents of grassroots social change. They empower marginalized communities, foster social capital, and democratize development. From a sociological perspective, they embody collective action and participatory democracy, challenging inequalities while strengthening cohesion. In India and globally, CSOs complement the state and market, ensuring that development is not only about economic growth but also about equity, dignity, and empowerment.

c. In what way does queer kinship challenge the traditional kinship system? Substantiate by giving illustrations. (10 marks)

Kinship has traditionally been understood in sociology as a system based on heterosexual marriage, biological reproduction, and lineage. Queer kinship, however, disrupts these assumptions by recognizing diverse, non-normative forms of intimacy, care, and family-making. It challenges the heteronormative framework and expands the meaning of kinship beyond blood and marriage ties.

Queer Kinship Challenges Traditional Kinship

Redefinition of Family:

• Traditional kinship emphasizes nuclear families based on heterosexual couples and biological children.
• Queer kinship includes chosen families, same-sex couples, and networks of friends who function as kin.

Decentering Biological Reproduction:

• Conventional kinship privileges biological descent.
• Queer kinship recognizes adoption, surrogacy, and caregiving as equally valid forms of family-making.

Fluidity of Roles:

• Traditional kinship assigns rigid roles (husband, wife, father, mother).
• Queer kinship allows fluid roles, where partners and caregivers negotiate responsibilities beyond gendered expectations.

Challenging Patriarchy and Heteronormativity:

• Traditional kinship often reinforces patriarchal authority and heterosexual norms.
• Queer kinship destabilizes these hierarchies by legitimizing diverse sexualities and gender identities.

Illustrations

• Same-Sex Parenting: In many societies, same-sex couples raising children challenge the assumption that only heterosexual unions can form legitimate families.
• Chosen Families in LGBTQ+ Communities: Individuals estranged from biological families often create networks of support, care, and solidarity that function as kinship.
• Indian Context: Post the Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018) judgment decriminalizing homosexuality, queer collectives and support groups in India have gained visibility, redefining kinship through community bonds rather than lineage.
• Global Example: In Western countries, legal recognition of same-sex marriage and adoption rights institutionalizes queer kinship, challenging traditional definitions of family.

Queer kinship challenges traditional kinship systems by broadening the definition of family, decentering biological reproduction, and destabilizing heteronormative and patriarchal structures. Through chosen families, same-sex parenting, and community-based bonds, queer kinship demonstrates that intimacy and care are not confined to conventional lineage but are socially constructed and diverse.