(a) Highlight the major contributions of the reform movements in pre-independent India. 20 Marks

The reform movements in pre-independent India played a crucial role in shaping the social, cultural, and political landscape of the nation. These movements emerged as a response to various social issues and aimed to modernize Indian society while preserving its cultural essence.

Major contributions of the reform movements include:

Social reforms:
• Abolition of Sati: Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned against the practice of widow immolation, leading to its legal prohibition in 1829.
• Women’s education: Pioneers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Jyotirao Phule advocated for women’s education, establishing schools and challenging gender inequalities.
• Widow remarriage: The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act of 1856 was a result of sustained efforts by reformers to improve the status of widows in society.

Religious reforms:
• Monotheism: Movements like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj promoted monotheistic ideas, challenging polytheistic practices and idol worship.
• Interfaith dialogue: Reformers encouraged interfaith understanding, as seen in the works of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda.

Caste reforms:
• Anti-untouchability: Reformers like B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi fought against caste discrimination and untouchability, promoting social equality.
• Inter-caste marriages: Progressive thinkers encouraged inter-caste marriages to break down caste barriers.

Nationalism and political awareness:
• The reform movements indirectly contributed to the growth of nationalism by fostering a sense of Indian identity and pride in cultural heritage.
• Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak used religious symbols to mobilize masses for the freedom struggle.

Educational reforms:
• Establishment of modern educational institutions, such as the Hindu College (later Presidency College) in Calcutta, promoting Western education alongside Indian traditions.

These reform movements, influenced by both Western ideas and Indian traditions, laid the foundation for social change and modernization in India. They challenged oppressive practices, promoted rationality, and paved the way for a more inclusive and progressive society.

(b) Identify different forms of inequalities associated with agrarian social structure in India.20 Marks

Inequalities in agrarian social structure

The agrarian social structure in India is marked by deep-rooted inequalities that stem from historical, socio-economic, and cultural factors. These inequalities manifest in various forms, affecting different segments of the rural population.

Caste-based Inequalities: The caste system plays a crucial role in agrarian relations. Lower castes, particularly Dalits, often have limited access to land ownership and resources. M.N. Srinivas highlighted how caste hierarchies influence social dynamics in villages. For example, in many regions, upper-caste landlords own vast tracts of land, while lower castes work as landless laborers.

Class-based Inequalities: Socio-economic class divisions lead to disparities between wealthy landowners and poor peasants. Andre Béteille’s studies on Tanjore village illustrate how economic class intersects with caste to create layered inequalities. Rich farmers can afford better technology and inputs, increasing productivity, while small farmers struggle to sustain themselves.

Land Ownership Inequalities: Land distribution in India is highly skewed. The Zamindari system historically concentrated land in the hands of a few. Despite land reforms, large landholdings persist, and marginal farmers own very little land. This affects their livelihood and bargaining power.

Gender-based Inequalities: Women in rural India face discrimination in land rights and labor. They contribute significantly to agriculture but rarely own land. Leela Dube emphasized that patriarchal norms limit women’s access to resources, impacting their social and economic status.

Regional Inequalities: Agricultural development is uneven across regions. States like Punjab and Haryana have advanced due to better infrastructure, while others lag behind. This disparity affects income levels and standards of living among farmers.

Access to Credit and Resources: Small and marginal farmers often lack access to institutional credit, relying on moneylenders who charge high interest rates. This perpetuates a cycle of debt. G.S. Ghurye pointed out that social networks influence access to resources, favoring the privileged.

Exploitation of Agricultural Laborers: Landless laborers face low wages, job insecurity, and poor working conditions. The absence of strong labor laws in rural areas exacerbates their vulnerability.

Conclusion: Thus, the agrarian social structure in India is characterized by multiple, overlapping inequalities that hinder equitable development.

(c) What are pressure groups? Discuss their role in decision-making in democracy. 10 Marks

In democratic politics, pressure groups are organisations which attempt to influence tlie government. Pressure groups are organised associations, unions or organisation of people having common interest. Their aim is to seek better conditions for their members through organised efforts. They try to influence the legislature, executive and other decision makers to have decisions made in their favour. They are like a living public behind the parties. Their role is indirect yet effective. Pressure groups and movements help deepen democracy as they justify the right of freedom of expression through following ways.

• They try to introduce their candidates into the legislature. They help political parties to win an election by preparing manifestos and mobilizing voters.
• Pressure Groups try to fill high executive posts with men who can fulfill their interest i.e. selection of cabinet and selection of PM in a coalition government, etc. which affects the policy implementation process.
• Bureaucrats are politically neutral and hence, the pressure groups try to bend them in their manner by putting good remarks on them. Bureaucrats have a long tenure of service and therefore, they oblige to them.
• Pressure groups play as a vital link between the government and the governed. They keep governments more inclined towards their interest.
• Pressure groups help in expressing the views and needs of the minority communities who otherwise may remain unheard.
• Pressure groups provide expertise to the government with various information which might be applicable to issues such as indigenous reconciliation.
• Pressure groups promote opportunities for political participation without joining a political party.

Although these pressure groups can turn violent sometimes, it is the duty of the government to cater to their needs and solve the crisis amicably without disrupting the interests of any group.