Climate change is altering the colour of the oceans: What a new study says

Although the change in the colour of the oceans doesn’t impact marine life directly, it indicates that marine ecosystems are in a state of flux and they could completely go out of balance in the future, which could severely affect ocean life and humans dependent on them.

The colour of the Earth’s oceans has significantly altered over the past two decades, most likely due to human-induced climate change, according to a new study. Over 56 per cent of the oceans, more than the total land area on the planet, has experienced the shift in colour, it added.

What makes the oceans colourful

• In most regions across the world, the oceans appear blue or navy blue for a reason. This happens due to “the absorption and scattering of light,” according to a report by NASA. When the sunlight falls on deep and clear water, colours with longer wavelengths, such as red, yellow and green, are absorbed by the water molecules but blue and violet, which have a much shorter wavelength, are reflected back.
• But when the water isn’t deep or clean, an ocean can appear to be of a different colour.
• For instance, along Argentina’s coastline, where major rivers merge into the Atlantic Ocean, the ocean exudes a brown tint because of dead leaves and sediments spewing from the rivers.
• In other parts of the world, the oceans appear green, which happens due to the existence of phytoplankton on the upper surface of the water.
• Phytoplankton are microscopic marine algae that contain the green-coloured pigment chlorophyll. The pigment helps them absorb sunlight, which they use to capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it into sugars. Moreover, chlorophyll absorbs the red and blue portions of the light spectrum — or photosynthesis — and reflects green light
• So, the ocean over regions with high concentrations of phytoplankton will appear as certain shades, from blue-green to green, depending upon the type and density of the phytoplankton population there

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), aboard NASA’s Aqua satellite, which has been monitoring ocean colour since 2002 — the measurements are taken in terms of the amount of light coming off the surface of the oceans, at all seven of the different wavelengths of light, from violet to red.

Then, to check if the phenomenon has occurred due to climate change, researchers used a climate model – a computer representation of the Earth. this model simulated the planet’s oceans under two scenarios: one with the addition of greenhouse gases, and the other without it. The greenhouse-gas model predicted that a significant trend should show up within 20 years and that this trend should cause changes to ocean colour in about 50 percent of the world’s surface oceans

The study says one of the most affected areas is the Tropical ocean regions, near the equator, where the water is turning from blue to green.

The findings suggest that a shift in colour is happening in those regions where the oceans are getting more stratified.

Ocean stratification is the natural separation of an ocean’s water into horizontal layers by density, with warmer, lighter, less salty, and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water. Usually, ocean ecosystems, currents, wind, and tides mix these layers, creating smoothed temperature and salinity transitions between them.

ISRO rocket debris on Australian shore: rules governing space junk

• A large object found on the shores of western Australia a couple of weeks ago has been confirmed to be the debris of an Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) rocket.
• An ISRO official said the object was most likely an unburnt part of the PSLV rocket that launched a navigation satellite for the IRNSS constellation two months ago.

Are such incidents normal?

In recent times, a large chunk of a 25-tonne Chinese rocket fell into the Indian Ocean in May 2021. The most famous such case remains that of the Skylab space station, a predecessor to the currently operational International Space Station, which disintegrated in 1979. Large chunks from this disintegration fell into the Indian Ocean, some of them falling on land in western Australia.

Isn’t it dangerous?

The threat to life and property from falling space junk is not negligible. Even when falling into the oceans, which is more likely since 70 per cent of the earth’s surface is ocean, large objects can be a threat to marine life, and a source of pollution.

What happens if these objects cause damage?

• There are international regulations governing space debris, which include junk falling back on the earth. Most space-faring countries are signatories to the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. This convention is one of the several international agreements that complement the Outer Space Treaty, the overarching framework guiding the behaviour of countries in space. The Liability Convention deals mainly with damage caused by space objects to other space assets, but it also applies to damage caused by falling objects on earth.
• The Convention makes the launching country “absolutely liable” to pay compensation for any damage caused by its space object on the earth or to a flight in air. The country where the junk falls can stake a claim for compensation if it has been damaged by the falling object.
• In the current case, if the PSLV junk had caused any damage in Australia, India could have been liable to pay compensation, even if the object fell into the ocean and was then swept to the shores. The amount of compensation is to be decided “in accordance with international law and the principles of justice and equity”.
• This provision of the Convention has resulted in compensation payment only once so far — when Canada sought damages from the then Soviet Union, for a satellite with radioactive substance that fell into an uninhabited region in its northern territory in 1978. The Soviet Union is reported to have paid 3 million Canadian dollars.

Who are the Paharis and Paddaris, proposed for ST status in J&K?

The government has brought a Bill to include four communities in the list of Scheduled Tribes (STs) in Jammu and Kashmir: “Gadda Brahmin”, “Koli”, “Paddari Tribe”, and “Pahari Ethnic Group”.

The Constitution (Jammu and Kashmir) Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Bill, 2023 is one of the four Bills relating to the Union Territory that were introduced in Lok Sabha on July 26.

ST communities now

• The dominant ST communities in J&K are the Gujjars and Bakerwals, who mainly live in the districts of Rajouri, Poonch, Reasi, Kishtwar, Anantnag, Bandipora, Ganderbal, and Kupwara. Most of them, especially the Bakerwals, are nomadic — they migrate with their livestock to the higher reaches in the summer, and return before the onset of winter.
• With a population of almost 18 lakh, the Gujjar-Bakerwal are the third largest group after Kashmiris and Dogras in J&K. They were given ST status in 1991, along with the two smaller groups of Gaddis and Sippis. This entitled these four communities to 10% reservation in government jobs and admission to educational institutions; in 2019, they were empowered politically after the Centre announced a 10% quota for them in Lok Sabha and Assembly seats in J&K.
• The proposed expansion of the ST list has triggered unrest among the Gujjar-Bakerwal, who apprehend a shrinking of their share of the quota benefits pie.
• Gujjar-Bakerwal leaders are especially agitated with the proposed ST status for Paharis and Paddaris. Gadda Brahmins and Kolis are very small communities; also, according to the protesters, Gadda Brahmins are a branch of the Gaddis while Kolis are a sub-caste of Sippis — both these communities are already in the ST list.

Pahari Ethnic Group

• The Paharis are Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, and include people of Kashmiri origin who settled in the districts of Rajouri and Poonch over a period of time. There are upper caste Hindus among the Paharis; also people who were displaced from Pakistan Occupied Kashmir.
• The Paharis finally got 4% reservation in jobs and educational institutions in 2019, when Satya Pal Malik was Governor. Also in 2019, the Justice (retd) G D Sharma Commission was appointed to identify groups that were socially, educationally, and economically backward. The Commission in its report recommended ST status for Gadda Brahmins, Kolis, Paddari Tribe, and Pahari Ethnic Group. The report was sent to the Tribal Affairs Ministry, and the Registrar General approved it in 2022.

Paddari Tribe

• They live in the remote Paddar area of the hilly Kishtwar district. Spread over two tehsils, the Paddari homeland borders Zanskar (Ladakh) in the north and the east, Pangi in Himachal Pradesh in the south, and the rest of J&K in the west.
• The 2011 census recorded the Paddari population at 21,548, comprising 83.6% Hindus, 9.5% Buddhists, and 6.8% Muslims. The people of the area, including those who have come from elsewhere to settle there, speak the Paddari language.
• Like in the case of the Paharis, the Gujjar-Bakerwal opposition to the proposed inclusion of the Paddari Tribe in the ST list is based on the argument that they do not constitute a single ethic group, but are a mix of individuals from different castes and religions who speak a particular language.

Could China take Kuril islands claimed by Japan and Russia?

• The Kuril Islands are stretched from the Japanese island of Hokkaido to the southern tip of Russia''s Kamchatka Peninsula separating the Okhotsk Sea from the North Pacific Ocean.
• The chain is part of the belt of geologic instability circling the Pacific (Ring of Fire) and contains at least 100 volcanoes, of which 35 are still active, and many hot springs.
• Significance:
  • Natural resources: The islands are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and are thought to have offshore reserves of oil and gas.
  • Strategic Importance: Russia has deployed missile systems in the region. Russia also plans a submarine project and intends to prevent any American military use of the islands.
  • Cultural Importance: The Japanese people, especially conservatives in Hokkaido, are emotionally attached to the islands.

History of the Kuril Islands Dispute

• The Kuril Islands dispute between Japan and Russia is over the sovereignty of South Kuril Islands.
• The South Kuril Islands comprise Etorofu island, Kunashiri island, Shikotan island and the Habomai island.
  • These islands are claimed by Japan but occupied by Russia as the successor state of the Soviet Union.
• Treaty of Shimoda (1855):
  • In 1855, Japan and Russia concluded the Treaty of Shimoda, which gave control of the four southernmost islands to Japan and the remainder of the chain to Russia.
• Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875):
  • In the Treaty of Saint Petersburg, signed between the two countries in 1875, Russia ceded possession of the Kurils to Japan in exchange for uncontested control of Sakhalin Island.
  • However, these islands were again seized by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.
• Yalta Agreement (1945):
  • In 1945, as part of the Yalta agreements (formalized in the 1951 Treaty of Peace with Japan), the islands were ceded to the Soviet Union, and the Japanese population was repatriated and replaced by the Soviets.
• San Francisco Peace Treaty (1951):
  • The San Francisco Peace Treaty signed between the Allies and Japan in 1951, states that Japan must give up “all right, title and claim to the Kuril Islands”, but it also does not recognize the Soviet Union’s sovereignty over them.
    • In World War II, the main combatants were:
      • Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan)
      • Allies (France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China).
• Japan-Soviet Joint Declaration (1956):
  • The dispute over the islands has prevented the conclusion of a peace treaty to end World War II.
  • In 1956, diplomatic ties were restored between Japan and Russia by Japan-Soviet Joint Declaration.
  • During that time, Russia offered to give away the two islands closest to Japan. But the offer was rejected by Japan as the two islands constituted only 7% of the land in question.

Current Scenario

• Despite a series of agreements, the dispute continues, and Japan still claims historical rights to the southernmost islands and has tried repeatedly to persuade the Soviet Union and, from 1991, Russia to return those islands to Japanese sovereignty.
• In 2018, the Russian President and the Japanese Prime Minister (PM) met on the sidelines of the East Asia Summit and decided to end the territorial dispute by the Japanese PM agreeing to negotiate based on the 1956 declaration.
  • This implicitly showed that Japan has given up the two islands to maintain peace with Russia.
• However, Russia indicated that the joint declaration signed by Japan and the Soviet Union in 1956 neither mentions a basis for returning Habomai and Shikotan nor clarifies which country has sovereignty over the islands.
• Further, in 2019, the Japanese PM made it clear that the country is not in the favour of withdrawing control over the Islands.
• Japan also believes that the islands are an inherent part of the nation’s territory.
• Therefore, Japan mentioned that it aims to sign the peace treaty after the territorial issue is resolved.

Experts say ‘road transect’ method is most effective for vulture population estimation in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

• A group of researchers has ascertained that the road transect method, is the most effective method to estimate vulture populations in the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR), home to the southernmost, viable populations of at least three species of endangered vultures in India.
• Road transects are a sampling methodology between two points along which a survey is undertaken to identify the species and number of individual animals seen along the line. If suitably planned, road transects can cover large areas with little chance of individuals being double-counted by volunteers undertaking the count.
• A comparative population estimation method was conducted due to the challenges and limitations of each of these methods, including “limited access for assessing breeding populations because they are mostly located in inhospitable and undulating terrain that is difficult to cover by road transect method, nest counts being only viable option for nesting populations and carcass monitoring being dependant on the wildlife kills of cattle.”
• Of the three estimation methods evaluated, the researchers found that the road transect method was the most accurate method to estimate the vulture population in MTR. Road transects were successful in identifying all four species of vultures seen in the MTR —the white-rumped vulture, long-billed vulture, Asian king vulture and the Egyptian vulture. This would have been difficult otherwise, as only the nesting sites of white-rumped and long-billed vultures are accessible to researchers in MTR, while the nesting site of the Asian king vulture is yet to be identified and the Egyptian vulture is known to have stopped nesting in the Nilgiris altogether.
• As vultures in general, move in and out of a territory, the road transect method is very effective in determining population change over a time.
• It may be noted that the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka recently conducted a synchronous vulture census.

PM Modi dedicates Lokmanya Tilak National Award money to Namami Gange Mission

Lokmanya Tilak National Award

• The award was instituted in 1983 by the Tilak Smarak Mandir Trust.
• This award is given every year on 1st August, the death anniversary of Lokmanya Tilak, to persons who have made remarkable and extraordinary contributions, working for the progress and development of the nation.

Lokmanya Tilak

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak, commonly known as Lokmanya Tilak, was a prominent Indian nationalist, freedom fighter, social reformer, and political leader during the Indian independence movement.
• He was one of the prime architects of modern India and probably the strongest advocate of Swaraj or Self Rule for India.
• He is known for his slogan, "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
• He was born as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak and his followers bequeathed upon him the title of ‘Lokmanya’, meaning he who is revered by the people.
• Extremist:
  • He was considered a radical Nationalist.
  • The British Government termed him the "Father of Indian Unrest".
• Organisations:
  • He joined the Indian National Congress Party in the year 1890.
  • He also helped found the All India Home Rule League in 1916–18 with G. S. Khaparde and Annie Besant.
  • Tilak started his Home Rule League in Maharashtra, Central Provinces, and Karnataka and Berar region. Besant''s League was active in the rest part of India. It aimed to advocate for self-rule and raise public awareness about India''s right to govern itself.
• Literary works:
  • Tilak was a prolific writer and journalist. He used his newspaper, "Kesari" (meaning Lion) in Marathi and later "Maratha" in English to disseminate nationalist ideas.
  • Some of his notable literary works include "The Arctic Home in the Vedas," where he presented his theory that the Vedas originated in the Arctic region, and "Shrimad Bhagavad Gita Rahasya," an interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita from a nationalist perspective.
• Educationist:
  • Tilak believed in the power of education and established the Deccan Education Society in Pune in 1884.
  • The society founded Fergusson College and the New English School, which played crucial roles in promoting modern education in Maharashtra.
  • Tilak taught mathematics at Fergusson College.
• Social Reform: Lokmanya Tilak was also an advocate of social reform. He actively supported the eradication of social evils like untouchability and child marriage and promoted education for women.
• Lal-Bal-Pal: He had popular leaders such as Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai as his political companions, and the three were popularly known as the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate.’
• Imprisonments: He was arrested for sedition on multiple occasions. His most prolonged incarceration lasted from 1908 to 1914, during which he wrote the famous book "Gita Rahasya" (The Secret of the Bhagavad Gita).
• In 1916 he concluded the Lucknow Pact with Mohammed Ali Jinnah, which provided for Hindu-Muslim unity in the nationalist struggle.

Australia''s Great Barrier Reef off UNESCO Danger List, Still Under ''Serious Threat''

Great Barrier Reef

• Location: It lies in the Pacific Ocean off the northeastern coast of Queensland, Australia, in the Coral Sea.
• It is the longest and largest coral reef system in the world.
• Size:
  • It extends in roughly a northwest-southeast direction for more than 2,000 km, at an offshore distance ranging from 16 to 160 km, and its width ranges from 60 to 250 km.
  • It has an area of some 350,000 square km.
• It is composed of over 2,500 individual reefs of varying sizes and shapes and over 900 islands.
• It was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981.
• Much of the Great Barrier Reef is a marine protected area, managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority of Australia.
• Biodiversity: It is estimated that the reef is home to around 1,500 species of fish and around 600 different coral species.

Corals

• Corals are marine invertebrate animals that belong to the phylum Cnidaria.
• Coral Polyps:
  • Corals exist as individual polyps, which are small, sac-like organisms with a mouth surrounded by tentacles.
  • The polyps secrete a hard external skeleton made of calcium carbonate, which forms the basis of the coral structure.
• Colony:
  • Most polyps live in groups of hundreds to thousands of genetically identical polyps that form a ‘colony’.
  • The colony is formed by a process called budding, which is where the original polyp literally grows copies of itself.
• Symbiotic Relationship:
  • Many corals have a symbiotic relationship with single-celled algae called zooxanthellae.
  • These algae live within the coral''s tissues and provide them with essential nutrients through photosynthesis.
  • In return, the corals offer protection and a place to thrive in well-lit, shallow waters.
• Coral Reefs
  • Coral polyps secrete a hard skeleton made of calcium carbonate, which over time forms the reefs.
  • Coral reefs are therefore created by millions of tiny polyps forming large carbonate structures.
• Coral Bleaching:
  • When stressed by high temperatures, pollution, or other factors, corals expel their zooxanthellae, leading to coral bleaching.
  • Without their symbiotic algae, corals lose their vibrant colours and become more vulnerable to disease and mortality.

Caught in deer snare, tiger dies in TN reserve

Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve

• Location:
  • It is located at the junction of the Eastern and the Western Ghats in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, in the Erode District of Tamil Nadu.
  • Its area is contiguous with the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) and BR Tiger Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary(Karnataka).
• Together, these reserves — forming the Nilgiris biosphere landscape — have the biggest tiger population in the world, at over 280 tigers.
• Terrain: It is hilly and undulated with altitude ranging between 750m and 1649m.
• Vegetation: It consists of southern tropical dry thorn forests, mixed deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests, and Riparian forests.
• Climate:
  • It is subtropical and dry.
  • The summers are hot and dry; the monsoons are wet and cooler, with river flooding.
• Rivers: Some of the prominent rivers in the region include the Bhavani, Moyar, and Noyyal rivers.
• Tribal Communities: It is home to several indigenous tribal communities, including the Irula and Kurumba tribes.
• Flora: Common Species of trees and shrubs found are Albizzia amara Chloroxylon swictenia, Gyrocarpus jacquini, Neem, Tamarind, Sandalwood, Randi dumetorum, Zizyphus and associates.
• Fauna: The major species are Elephant, Tiger, Panther, Sloth bear, Gaur, Black Buck, Spotted deer, Wild boar, Black napped hare, Common langur Nilgiri langur, Striped neck mongoose and Bonnet macaque.

Number of Metaverse users to surpass 600 million by 2026 due to generative AI

Metaverse

• It refers to a virtual or digital universe where people can interact with each other and digital objects in a shared online space.
• Origin of the term: The term “metaverse” first appeared in author Neal Stephenson’s 1992 science-fiction novel Snowcrash, which describes a future where millions of people use virtual avatars to participate in a cyberspace realm.
• The metaverse is essentially an interconnected network of virtual worlds, augmented reality, and virtual reality environments accessible through the internet.
• In this digital realm, users can create avatars, socialize with others, engage in various activities, explore virtual landscapes, and even conduct business or trade virtual goods and services.
• Elements of the metaverse include virtual reality (VR) platforms, augmented reality (AR) experiences, online games, social media, virtual commerce, and virtual art galleries, among others.
• The metaverse aims to offer a seamless and immersive experience, blurring the lines between the physical and digital worlds.
• Companies such as Meta (formerly Facebook), Microsoft, and Roblox are all investing heavily in the metaverse, and it is seen as a potential major driver of growth in the technology industry in the coming years.

Augmented Reality (AR)

• It is an enhanced version of the real physical world that is achieved through the use of digital visual elements, sound, or other sensory stimuli and delivered via technology.
• It overlays digital content onto real-life environments and objects.
• AR works by superimposing digital information onto real-world objects to create a 3D experience that allows users to interact with both the physical and digital worlds.
• Unlike Virtual Reality (VR), which creates its own cyber environment, AR adds to the existing world as it is.

Virtual Reality (VR)

• It is a simulated 3D environment that enables users to explore and interact with virtual surroundings in a way that approximates reality as it is perceived through the users'' senses.
• The environment is created with computer hardware and software, and the users need to wear devices such as helmets or goggles (Virtual Reality headsets or helmets) to interact with the environment.

''Bhojpatra calligraphy'' business by Mana women a boost for economy

Bhojpatra Tree

• It is also known as Himalayan Birch and it is widely found in the Himalayas.
• It is a deciduous tree native to the Western Himalayas that grows at elevations of up to 4,500 metres
• It has a high freezing tolerance potential, allowing it to form a treeline in the Himalayan region.
• It is a long-lived species which can survive up to 400 years and the only angiosperm in the Himalaya which dominates an extensive area at sub - alpine altitudes.
• Distribution: It is widely distributed in the altitudinal range from 3100 - 3800 m in North-western Himalaya.
• It contributes to the preservation of the Himalayan ecosystem by reducing soil erosion and creating a bio-shield for the remaining forests and sub-alpine meadows below the treeline.
• The bark of this tree was used for centuries in our Country for writing lengthy scriptures and texts in Sanskrit and other scripts, particularly in historical Uttarkhand and Kashmir.

India-Papua New Guinea sign MoU for India Stack collaboration

India Stack

• It is a set of Application Programming Interface (APIs) that allows governments, businesses, startups and developers to utilise a unique digital Infrastructure.
• India Stack consists of three layers of open APIs: identity, payments, and data.
• Although the name of this project bears the word India, the vision of India Stack is not limited to one country.
• It can be applied to any nation, be it a developed one or an emerging one.
• The four distinct technology layers provided are
  • Presenceless layer: Where a universal biometric digital identity allows people to participate in any service from anywhere in the country.
  • Paperless layer: Where digital records move with an individual''s digital identity, eliminating the need for massive amount of paper collection and storage.
  • Cashless layer: Where a single interface to all the country''s bank accounts and wallets to democratize payments.
  • Consent layer: Which allows data to move freely and securely to democratize the market for data?
• Some of the APIs that are a central part of India Stack: Aadhaar Proof, Aadhaar e-KYC, e-Sign, Digital Locker, Unified Payment Interface
• The Open API team at iSPIRT has been a pro-bono partner in the development, evolution, and evangelisation of these APIs and systems.

API

• In the context of APIs, the word Application refers to any software with a distinct function.
• Interface can be thought of as a contract of service between two applications.
• This contract defines how the two communicate with each other using requests and responses.
• Their API documentation contains information on how developers are to structure those requests and responses.

Facing existential crisis, Western Tragopan sees a glimmer of hope in Himachal Pradesh for its survival

Western Tragopan

• It is also known as the western horned tragopan, is amongst the rarest of all living pheasants.
• Due to its beautiful plumage and large size, this bird is locally known as ‘jujurana’ or ‘king of birds’.
• It is the state bird of Himachal Pradesh.
• Distribution: It is endemic to the northwest Himalaya, within a narrow range from Hazara in north Pakistan through Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, to the western part of Garhwal.
• The upper part of Great Himalayan National Park’s (GHNP) forest zone holds the world’s largest known population of western tragopan.
• It prefers a habitat of ringal (dwarf) bamboo beneath dense forest.
• Diet: It feeds mostly on leaves, shoots and seeds, but also consumes insects and other invertebrates.
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting pressure and anthropogenic disturbances which includes livestock grazing, minor forest produce collection like medicinal herbs etc.
• Conservation status
  • IUCN: Vulnerable