Evolution of Deception Techniques in Modern Warfare

Deception in warfare has entered a new era as countries like India increasingly employ AI-driven aerial, land, and naval decoys to counter the growing threat of precision-guided weaponry. Once confined to camouflage and battlefield ruses, deception has evolved into a complex, technologically integrated element of modern combat operations.

Introduction

Throughout history, deception has been a core element of military strategy. In the 21st century, however, it has transformed into a sophisticated tool enhanced by artificial intelligence, advanced sensors, and multi-domain operational capabilities. With modern combat systems growing more precise and destructive, nations are turning to deception as a cost-effective, potent means of disrupting enemy operations. Contemporary decoys are no longer crude imitations; they are technologically advanced systems capable of misleading a wide array of enemy detection tools—from radar to infrared sensors—thereby transforming confusion into a calculated advantage.

The Evolution of Deceptive Warfare

Deception has long been employed on the battlefield, historically taking the form of camouflage, misdirection, and misleading tactics. However, the digital age has brought about a dramatic shift in how these strategies are deployed. Today’s decoys are highly engineered to simulate radar, thermal, and acoustic signatures of real military assets. This evolution compels adversaries to expend costly munitions on false targets, creating strategic breathing room for real platforms to maneuver, evade, or retaliate. As a result, deception is no longer a supplementary tactic—it is now central to modern military doctrine.

India’s Deployment of AI-Enabled Decoys

India''s advancements in this domain were prominently displayed during Operation Sindoor, where the Indian Air Force reportedly deployed the Israeli-developed X-Guard Fibre-Optic Towed Decoy (FOTD) system. These decoys, integrated with Rafale fighter jets, were engineered to mimic key signatures such as radar cross-section, velocity, and spectral characteristics. According to reports, missiles launched by the Pakistan Air Force were misled by these decoys, targeting them instead of actual Indian aircraft. Analysts have hailed this as one of the most effective instances of spoofing and deception ever recorded in aerial combat, underscoring the operational value of AI-enabled countermeasures.

Operational Mechanics of the X-Guard System

Weighing approximately 30 kilograms, the X-Guard system works in tandem with the Rafale’s SPECTRA electronic warfare suite. While SPECTRA identifies and counters incoming threats, the X-Guard acts as a trailing, expendable shield, emitting disruptive signals across a wide spectrum of radar frequencies. This dual-layered defense mechanism provides both active and passive protection. Globally, similar systems include Leonardo’s BriteCloud, Raytheon/BAE Systems’ AN/ALE-50/55 series, and decoys integrated with advanced platforms such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and Saab Gripen-E.

Deception Tactics in Land Warfare

On terrestrial battlefields, deception has taken the form of inflatable, radar-reflective, and heat-emitting decoys designed to simulate tanks, artillery, and missile batteries. These systems have demonstrated effectiveness across various conflicts, from the 1991 Gulf War to the ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine. In the current conflict, Russia employs Inflatech decoys to mimic large armored formations, while Ukraine leverages wooden and 3D-printed replicas to deplete Russian drone and missile stocks. India is actively pursuing similar capabilities; in April 2025, the Indian Army initiated procurement of decoys replicating the thermal and acoustic signatures of its T-90 tank fleet, aiming to protect these high-value assets from drone strikes and loitering munitions.

Naval Deception and Countermeasure Systems

In the maritime domain, deception involves the use of layered countermeasures such as floating chaff, acoustic jamming systems, and advanced offboard decoys. A prime example is the Nulka active missile decoy, a joint development by the United States and Australia, which imitates the radar signature of large warships to divert incoming anti-ship missiles. The Indian Navy has similarly adopted deception systems; its Kalvari-class submarines are equipped with advanced torpedo decoys, reflecting the growing emphasis on deception as a defensive cornerstone in naval operations.

Strategic Relevance of Modern Deception

In contemporary military planning, deception systems offer a high return on investment. Their ability to divert enemy fire away from valuable assets not only preserves resources but also sows uncertainty and doubt within adversary ranks. For nations like India, these technologies are more than defensive tools—they are strategic force multipliers. By undermining the efficacy of technologically superior opponents, deception enhances deterrence, operational survivability, and long-term military resilience.

Through a combination of innovation, integration, and strategic deployment, deception has emerged as a defining feature of modern warfare. Far from being an auxiliary tactic, it now sits at the heart of 21st-century military operations, transforming the battlefield into a domain where perception can be just as decisive as firepower.

DRDO Successfully Tests Indigenous Integrated Air Defence Weapon System

The Ministry of Defence recently announced the successful first flight-tests of the Indigenous Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS), developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Conducted off the coast of Odisha, the system showcased its capability by simultaneously intercepting and destroying three aerial targets at different altitudes and ranges. This achievement marks a significant advancement in India’s pursuit of self-reliant and indigenous defence technologies.

Overview of the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

• The Integrated Air Defence Weapon System represents a sophisticated, multi-layered defence architecture designed to intercept and neutralise a broad spectrum of aerial threats. It comprises three core weapon platforms: the Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAMs), the Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS) missiles, and a Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) based on high-energy laser technology.
• During recent trials at Chandipur, all three components were successfully tested and verified through various range instruments. Their performance highlighted the system''s capacity to deliver a coordinated, precise, and multi-pronged response to simultaneous airborne threats.

Architecture and Integration of IADWS

• The IADWS operates through seamless integration of its three main weapon systems—QRSAM, VSHORADS, and DEW—all of which are controlled by a Centralised Command and Control Centre. This nerve centre has been developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) in Hyderabad.
• The fusion of these components creates a mobile, flexible, and technologically advanced air defence shield, capable of responding to threats ranging from high-speed aircraft to low-flying drones. The system''s architecture ensures effective coverage across various threat profiles and mission environments.

Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile (QRSAM)

• Developed by DRDO, the QRSAM is engineered to provide frontline air defence to mobile Army armoured formations. It has an engagement envelope ranging from 3 to 30 kilometres and is mounted on high-mobility platforms, allowing it to search, track, and fire while on the move.
• The QRSAM is supported by an automated command and control system and two radar units—Battery Surveillance Radar and Multifunction Radar—both providing 360-degree coverage. These radars ensure rapid threat detection and engagement, significantly improving the system’s responsiveness during high-intensity operations.

Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS)

• The VSHORADS is a fourth-generation man-portable air defence system (MANPAD), developed by the Research Centre Imarat (RCI) in Hyderabad. With an effective range between 300 metres and 6 kilometres, it is designed to neutralise low-altitude aerial threats, including drones, UAVs, and helicopters.
• Owing to its portability and quick deployment capability, the VSHORADS is usable across all branches of the Indian Armed Forces—Army, Navy, and Air Force—making it a versatile component of the IADWS framework.

Directed Energy Weapon (DEW)

• The Directed Energy Weapon, developed by the Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS) in Hyderabad, is a vehicle-mounted laser system designated DEW MK-II(A). With an effective range of under 3 kilometres, the DEW was recently demonstrated in April, where it successfully destroyed unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and swarm drones by inflicting structural damage and disabling critical sensors.
• This successful demonstration places India among a select group of nations possessing operational laser-based directed-energy weapons, reflecting a major leap in futuristic defence capabilities.

Strategic Importance of IADWS

• The strategic value of the IADWS lies in its ability to counter a wide array of aerial threats, including fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, drones, and cruise missiles, within a 30-kilometre radius. The system is completely indigenous, including its command and control architecture and weapon components, representing a pivotal step toward defence self-reliance.
• The recent tests not only validated the individual components but also demonstrated their effective integration into a single, cohesive system. This enhances India''s layered air defence network, delivering faster response times and significantly reducing dependency on foreign military hardware.
• According to officials, the IADWS is a vital step toward achieving the goals of Mission Sudarshan Chakra, a nationwide initiative aimed at creating a comprehensive, multi-layered defence shield. The mission, as announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, aims to establish a fully integrated defence framework capable of detecting, intercepting, and neutralising threats across air, land, and cyberspace.

Mission Sudarshan Chakra and National Defence Framework

• Mission Sudarshan Chakra envisions the deployment of a networked, multi-layered security system to protect India’s borders and critical installations. It will combine elements such as air surveillance, cybersecurity, and advanced air defence technologies to counter threats ranging from long-range missiles and UAVs to cyber intrusions.
• Covering both frontline territories and high-value national assets, the mission aims to create a robust security environment through an integrated response mechanism. IADWS will form a crucial part of this framework, enhancing India’s capacity to respond swiftly and decisively to any form of aerial aggression.

Operational Context: Air Defence Success Post Operation Sindoor

• In the aftermath of Operation Sindoor, India’s air defence infrastructure played a decisive role in intercepting and neutralising Pakistani aerial threats. Systems such as the S-400 Triumf, the Barak 8 Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missile (MRSAM), and the indigenous Akash missile system were deployed to create a dense, multi-layered air shield.
• Additionally, the Armed Forces activated an Integrated Counter-UAS Grid, deploying electronic and kinetic systems to target drones and unmanned threats. The successful interception of enemy projectiles and aerial systems during this period reaffirmed the effectiveness of India’s layered air defence strategy, of which IADWS is now a crucial component.
• As India moves forward with greater emphasis on self-reliant defence capabilities, the IADWS represents both technological maturity and strategic foresight. Its successful trial signals a new chapter in India’s ability to defend its skies with speed, precision, and indigenous strength.

Jan Vishwas 2.0 – Towards Trust-Based Governance

The Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill, 2025—referred to as Jan Vishwas 2.0—was recently introduced in the Lok Sabha as an extension of the Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act, 2023. While the 2023 Act had decriminalised 183 provisions across 42 different laws, the new Bill proposes amendments to 16 central legislations administered by 10 ministries and departments. Its objective is to further decriminalise minor offences, rationalise penalties, and promote a governance model based on trust. By reducing unnecessary criminal liabilities, the Bill seeks to improve both ease of living and ease of doing business in India.

Background: Why Jan Vishwas 2.0 Was Needed

• India’s legal and regulatory framework has long been criticised for overcriminalisation. According to research by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, 370 out of 882 central laws contain criminal provisions covering more than 7,300 offences. Strikingly, over 75% of these pertain to domains that lie outside core criminal justice—such as shipping regulations, municipal governance, taxation, and the financial sector.
• Often, the punishments prescribed are disproportionate to the offences. Minor or technical lapses—for instance, something as trivial as milking a cow on a public street or failing to leash a pet—can lead to arrest, violating the principle of proportionality in law.
• This approach also creates significant barriers for businesses. A 2022 report by the Observer Research Foundation (ORF) highlighted that of the 1,536 business-related laws, more than half include provisions for imprisonment. Moreover, out of 69,233 compliance requirements, 37.8% entail jail terms. Such penal provisions discourage entrepreneurship, hinder job creation, and impede GDP growth.
• The overburdened judiciary is another concern. Data from the National Judicial Data Grid indicates that over 3.6 crore criminal cases are currently pending in district courts, with more than 2.3 crore cases delayed for over a year. Many of these are tied to procedural or minor infractions, clogging the courts and delaying justice in serious cases.

Provisions of the Jan Vishwas Bill, 2025

• The 2025 Bill proposes amendments to 355 legal provisions. Of these, 288 relate to decriminalisation aimed at facilitating ease of doing business, while 67 target simplification for citizens, thereby promoting ease of living.
• The proposed amendments span 16 central Acts, including significant legislation such as the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934; Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940; Motor Vehicles Act, 1988; Electricity Act, 2003; Legal Metrology Act, 2009; and the MSME Development Act, 2006. These Acts govern crucial sectors and industries, making the Bill’s implications wide-ranging.

Key Features of the Bill

• For first-time and low-risk offenders, the Bill proposes introducing warning mechanisms and improvement notices in place of penalties. For instance, under the Legal Metrology Act, non-standard weights and measures previously attracted a fine of ₹1 lakh. Under the new provisions, such offences would first prompt an improvement notice with a specific rectification timeline, shifting the focus from punishment to compliance.
• The Bill also removes imprisonment clauses for several procedural and technical violations. As an example, under the Electricity Act, 2023, non-compliance with regulatory orders previously resulted in a three-month jail term. The new provisions replace this with a financial penalty ranging from ₹10,000 to ₹10 lakh, eliminating incarceration for technical faults.
• Furthermore, the Bill rationalises penalties by introducing a provision for automatic escalation—penalties will increase by 10% every three years. This ensures that fines remain an effective deterrent without necessitating frequent legislative changes. The broader aim is to shift the focus from imprisonment to monetary fines and compliance-oriented governance.

Rationale Behind Jan Vishwas 2.0

The Bill aligns with the government’s philosophy of “minimum government, maximum governance.” It supports flagship initiatives such as Make in India, Ease of Doing Business, and judicial reform, while reiterating the state’s commitment to removing outdated and obstructive laws that criminalise minor activities. By adopting a trust-based approach, the government aims to foster a more enabling legal environment for both citizens and businesses.

Conclusion

The Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Bill, 2025 is currently under examination by a Select Committee of the Lok Sabha, and its report is expected in the upcoming parliamentary session. Once enacted, the Bill is likely to reduce judicial burden, improve regulatory compliance, and enhance the trust quotient in governance. It could also significantly improve India’s image as a business-friendly economy while reaffirming the state’s commitment to legal reform and citizen empowerment.

India’s Dairy Model: Competitiveness, Efficiency, and Emerging Challenges

In contrast to agricultural commodities like maize—where American farmers benefit from higher yields and lower costs—India’s dairy sector remains globally competitive. Despite lacking large-scale industrial farms, Indian milk prices are comparable to or even lower than those in many developed economies. This efficiency stems from India’s unique low-cost dairy model, where smallholder farmers rely on feeding cattle crop residues and by-products, enabling them to produce milk at globally competitive rates.

The Scale and Importance of India’s Dairy Sector

• India has been the world’s largest milk producer for over two decades, contributing approximately 25% of global output. In 2024, milk production was estimated at 239 million metric tonnes (MMT), and the sector contributed around 5% to the national economy. Employing over 80 million farmers, dairy serves as a critical source of livelihood, particularly for rural households, including small and marginal farmers.
• India’s dairy market was valued at USD 135.3 billion in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 274.09 billion by 2032, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.33%. Major milk-producing states include Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Tamil Nadu.

Production and Export Profile

Besides being the largest producer, India is also a significant exporter of dairy products. Government schemes like the Rashtriya Gokul Mission, National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD), and Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS), along with efforts by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) and state cooperative federations, have helped raise productivity, improve animal health, and strengthen supply chains.

Price Competitiveness in a Global Context

Milk prices in India remain globally competitive. In July 2025, under the US Federal Milk Marketing Order (FMMO), the average farmgate price for milk with 3.5% fat content was around ₹36.7 per litre. By comparison, Indian dairies in Maharashtra paid farmers ₹34 per litre for similar quality milk. This makes Indian milk prices comparable to those in the US and significantly lower than European Union prices, where milk costs around ₹55.6 per litre.

Yield and Cost Dynamics

India’s average milk yield per cow remains low at just 1.64 tonnes annually, compared to 4.6 tonnes in New Zealand, 7.3 tonnes in the European Union, and 11 tonnes in the United States. Yet, Indian dairying remains competitive due to low production costs driven by labour-intensive practices. Tasks such as milking, feeding, and cleaning are carried out manually at low wage costs. In contrast, Western farms depend heavily on high-cost automation and machinery.

Processing and Marketing Efficiency

India’s dairy sector also benefits from efficient processing and marketing mechanisms, especially within the cooperative framework. For instance, in the US, whole milk retails at around ₹100.4 per litre, while Amul—India’s leading cooperative dairy brand—sells toned milk at ₹55–₹57 per litre. Adjusted for fat content, Indian farmers receive about 55–57% of the retail price, whereas American farmers receive just 35%. The Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), which owns Amul, distributes over three-fourths of the consumer rupee to farmers—paying ₹44–₹45 per litre for cow milk and ₹65–₹66 for buffalo milk, outperforming private dairy players.

This high level of efficiency is attributed to robust systems for procurement, processing, transport, and marketing within cooperatives, which are designed to maximise farmers’ share of the retail value.

Challenges to Sustaining Competitiveness

• Despite its current strengths, India’s dairy model faces growing sustainability challenges. The sector relies heavily on unpaid family labour and farmers typically aim to recover only their out-of-pocket expenses, such as feed or veterinary care. However, this model is becoming less viable. Rural labour is becoming scarcer and more expensive, and younger family members are seeking better opportunities due to improved education and job options.
• India also lacks the geographical advantages of countries like New Zealand, which has vast pastures suitable for low-cost grazing. Nor can India match the mechanisation levels seen in the US, given the high capital investment and energy costs involved.
• Whereas the US sustains its dairy production through just 24,470 large farms, India depends on over 50 million smallholder farmers and approximately 110 million dairy animals. To remain globally competitive, Indian dairying must transition towards more sustainable and efficient models. This will require targeted mechanisation, genetic improvement of livestock, adoption of modern breeding technologies, and cultivation of high-yield, protein-rich fodder crops.
• Going forward, the sector’s competitiveness must shift from reliance on low-cost labour to gains in productivity, efficiency, and technology adoption.

Low Productivity of Indigenous Cattle and Buffaloes: Parliamentary Concerns

• A recent report by the Standing Committee on Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Food Processing has highlighted persistent concerns over the low milk productivity of indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds in India. The committee examined the role of the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in safeguarding and enhancing indigenous breeds under the Rashtriya Gokul Mission.
• India currently recognises 53 indigenous cattle breeds and 21 buffalo breeds. By 2023–24, the average daily milk yield of indigenous cattle rose to 3.54 kg, and for buffaloes to 5.92 kg. However, these figures remain significantly lower compared to exotic and crossbred cattle in India, which averaged 8.52 kg/day, and even further behind global standards. For instance, in 2022, Israel achieved average annual yields of 13,656 kg per cow, and the United States recorded 10,954 kg.
• Several systemic challenges underlie this productivity gap. Artificial insemination (AI) coverage remains limited to about 30% of breedable bovines across the country. Compounding the issue is a severe shortage of AI technicians — while 2,02,469 are required, only 1,16,586 are currently available. Additionally, more than 80% of low-yielding indigenous animals are owned by small or marginal farmers and landless labourers, making scalability of breed improvement programmes difficult.
• To address these challenges, the Committee has recommended revising the threshold criteria for critical cattle and buffalo breeds to a minimum population of 50,000 animals. This would enable a viable reference population for genomic selection and prevent mass breed loss due to disease or neglect. Furthermore, the report urges the inclusion of state-dominant indigenous breeds from across the country in improvement programmes, rather than focusing only on a few high-yielding ones.
• The Committee also called for enhanced accountability across semen stations to prevent recurring issues in semen quality and supply. It recommended incentivising sex-sorted semen production and improving access to advanced breeding tools.
• A number of initiatives are underway to promote indigenous breed development. The Rashtriya Gokul Mission (launched in 2014) remains the flagship scheme for breed conservation. Complementing it are the Accelerated Breed Improvement Programmes, which employ IVF and sex-sorted semen technologies. Genomic tools such as "GAUCHIP" for cattle and "MAHISHCIP" for buffaloes are being used to fast-track genetic improvements. Additionally, the Bharat Pashudhan App provides a digital platform for livestock identification, breeding, and health tracking.
• Despite these efforts, the report underscores that significant structural reforms, investment in training, and inclusive planning are essential for India to close the productivity gap while preserving its rich indigenous livestock heritage.

India’s Economic Future: Becoming a Product Nation

• Amid shifting geopolitical dynamics, including trade wars, supply chain disruptions, and protectionist policies, there is growing consensus that India must evolve from a service-dominated economy into a "Product Nation." This transformation is considered essential for ensuring long-term strategic autonomy, economic resilience, and global competitiveness.
• A "Product Nation" is defined by its capacity to innovate, manufacture, and export high-value, intellectual property (IP)-driven goods at scale. Such a country transitions from being a net importer to becoming a global producer of advanced, technology-oriented solutions. This shift not only drives economic growth but also amplifies a nation’s strategic leverage — for example, Taiwan’s dominance in semiconductors or China’s control over rare earth minerals.
• India’s integration into global supply chains remains modest, and to change this, it must develop its own suite of branded, high-tech products. This would involve both upstream innovation and downstream manufacturing excellence. A product-centric economy is also more resilient to global disruptions, unlike service sectors that can be easily affected by remote shifts in global demand.
• Several government-led initiatives are already in place to facilitate this transition. The Production Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes target 14 critical sectors, providing performance-based financial support to domestic manufacturers. The Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme offers assistance for semiconductor design infrastructure and IP creation.
• India is also investing in innovation through missions such as the National Quantum Mission, Atal Innovation Mission, and the IndiaAI Mission. To address logistics bottlenecks that undermine manufacturing competitiveness, the National Logistics Policy has been introduced to streamline supply chains.
• Moving forward, India will need to strengthen global partnerships — particularly with countries like Taiwan, which are leaders in precision manufacturing and hardware innovation. There is also a need to increase public and private investment in research and development. Educational and skill-development systems must be reformed to align with the needs of a product-driven economy. Finally, policy frameworks should be made more transparent and industry-friendly, removing regulatory barriers that inhibit entrepreneurship and industrial growth.
• In sum, to remain globally relevant and economically resilient, India’s next economic leap must come from product innovation, robust manufacturing, and a systemic focus on technology and IP creation. Transitioning to a Product Nation is not just a policy imperative—it is a strategic necessity.

Bengali Women Revolutionaries: The Forgotten Pillars of India’s Freedom Struggle

An editorial has recently spotlighted the largely overlooked but indispensable contributions of Bengali women revolutionaries in India’s fight for independence. It argued that these women should not be remembered merely as supportive figures in history, but as central architects of the freedom movement. Their stories—marked by courage, intellect, and resistance—form a vital chapter in India’s revolutionary history that deserves full recognition.

Profiles in Revolutionary Bravery and Defiance

• Pritilata Waddedar (1911–1932) led an armed attack on the racially exclusive European Club in Chittagong in 1932. Choosing martyrdom over capture, she consumed cyanide, leaving behind a stirring legacy of defiance and courage. Her call to Indian women to step out of the shadows and actively participate in the struggle reflected her progressive vision of gender equality in resistance.
• Kalpana Datta (1913–1995) was another prominent figure in the Chittagong Armoury Raid of 1930 under the leadership of Surya Sen. After her arrest and imprisonment, she emerged as a chronicler of the movement, insisting that women were not auxiliaries but “tacticians and partners,” actively shaping strategy and outcomes.
• Bina Das (1911–1986) personified both intellectual and militant resistance. In 1932, she attempted to assassinate Governor Stanley Jackson during a university convocation. Prior to that, she defied colonial and societal norms by wearing khadi, distributing revolutionary pamphlets, and referencing banned literature in academic settings.
• Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain (1880–1932) took a different route—combining reform, education, and feminist vision. A pioneering writer and social reformer, she authored Sultana’s Dream in 1905, envisioning a utopian society governed by women. She founded the Sakhawat Memorial Girls’ School in Kolkata and undertook door-to-door campaigns to promote Muslim women’s education, challenging entrenched norms and asserting education as a liberating force.
• Kamala Das Gupta (1907–2001), affiliated with the Jugantar revolutionary group, utilised the domestic space as a camouflage for underground activities. She smuggled arms in food baskets, sheltered fugitives, and managed operational logistics. Her memoir Rakter Akshare documents how women operated covertly within an extensive and highly disciplined resistance network.
• Nanibala Devi (1898–1977), a widowed Brahmin, adopted various disguises—a mother, wife, and servant—to carry out clandestine tasks for revolutionaries. Arrested and tortured in Peshawar, she chose silence over betrayal, exemplifying unyielding commitment and moral fortitude.
• Labanya Prabha Ghosh (1886–1956), a writer and social reformer, used literacy as a tool of resistance. She opened her home to underground meetings and organised reading circles, contributing to nationalist journals such as Mukti. Her grassroots mobilisation of rural women through education challenged both colonial control and gender hierarchies.
• Matangini Hazra (1869–1942), famously known as “Gandhi Buri,” was an illiterate widow from Tamluk who became a towering figure in mass resistance. During the Quit India Movement in 1942, she led a procession chanting Vande Mataram, and was shot multiple times while holding the national flag. Her martyrdom became emblematic of popular, grassroots defiance.

The Broader Significance of Women''s Participation

• The role of these women extended far beyond symbolic involvement. Their struggle was dual: against British colonial rule and against deeply rooted patriarchy. By stepping into spaces traditionally dominated by men—be it armed rebellion, intellectual discourse, or grassroots activism—they redefined the parameters of both revolution and womanhood in colonial India.
• They expanded the very notion of resistance, showing it could take many forms—from direct action and armed assault to covert logistics, literature, and social reform. Their sacrifices and actions inspired wider public participation, bolstered moral resolve, and added emotional weight to the freedom struggle.
• Their contribution also linked the nationalist movement to broader questions of social justice. Through initiatives like education, writing, and rural mobilisation, they wove the emancipation of women into the larger narrative of national liberation. Importantly, their participation bridged divides of caste, class, and community—ranging from educated elites to rural, illiterate widows—thus making the movement more inclusive and representative.

A Lasting Legacy for Gender Justice

By rejecting their assigned roles as passive supporters and embracing active leadership, these women laid the groundwork for future feminist and empowerment movements in India. Their lives challenged deeply entrenched notions of gender and power, establishing that the quest for independence was incomplete without gender justice and equal participation.

Conclusion

The contributions of Bengali women revolutionaries were not peripheral; they were integral to the spirit and structure of India’s freedom movement. Whether through acts of valour, intellectual resistance, or social reform, these women stood at the forefront of a multidimensional revolution. Their legacy urges us to reimagine history—not as a story dominated by men with women in the background, but as a shared struggle where women were co-creators of freedom and justice.

Younger vs Older Forests: Ecological Trade-Offs and Climate Concerns

A recent study published in Nature Ecology & Evolution has identified a concerning global trend: the growing predominance of younger forests—those under 40 years old—at the expense of older, mature forests that have stood for over a century. This shift is contributing to a net global carbon loss, raising urgent questions about forest management and climate policy.

Understanding the Distinction: Younger and Older Forests

Younger forests typically emerge from regrowth following disturbances such as fire, logging, or deforestation. They are characterised by rapid growth and high productivity, allowing them to sequester carbon quickly in the short term. However, they are significantly more vulnerable to environmental stresses and disturbances like pests, disease, and climate extremes. In contrast, older forests are ecologically mature, having remained undisturbed for centuries. They act as vast carbon reservoirs and are more stable and resilient to environmental shocks. Their complex ecosystems support rich biodiversity and provide critical ecological functions—such as regulating water cycles, maintaining soil health, and ensuring long-term climate stability.

Significance of the Shift

While younger forests contribute to carbon absorption in the early stages of growth and aid in ecological recovery, they cannot match the long-term carbon storage capabilities of older forests. The decline of mature forests, therefore, represents a substantial loss in global carbon sinks, making climate targets more difficult to achieve. Older forests not only offer climate benefits but also ensure a host of ecosystem services that younger forests cannot immediately provide. These include flood control, groundwater regulation, and habitat preservation for species that depend on stable, old-growth ecosystems.

Sand Mining and the Mandate for Replenishment Studies: Supreme Court’s Verdict

In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court upheld the National Green Tribunal’s cancellation of a 2022 environmental clearance granted for sand mining in Jammu & Kashmir. The Court declared that replenishment studies are a mandatory prerequisite for any environmental clearance in addition to the required District Survey Report (DSR).

Key Judicial Observations

The Supreme Court emphasised that without a replenishment study—a scientific assessment of how much sand and sediment a river can naturally regenerate—the DSR lacks foundational validity. The study is critical in determining the sustainable limits of sand extraction and preventing long-term ecological damage. Invoking the principle of natural regeneration, the Court drew a parallel with tree-felling, stating that just as trees must regrow before they are felled again, so too must sand beds be replenished before further extraction. This approach reinforces the principle of sustainable use of natural resources.

Understanding Sand Mining and Its Environmental Impact

Sand mining refers to the extraction of sand and related materials like gravel and stones from riverbeds, floodplains, and coastal areas for use in construction. When done without adequate environmental oversight, sand mining causes extensive ecological harm. Drawing on precedents like Deepak Kumar v. State of Haryana, the Court highlighted serious consequences of uncontrolled sand mining. These include the erosion of riverbanks, loss of aquatic habitats, damage to groundwater tables and aquifers, threats to biodiversity, increased flood risks, and the deterioration of water quality.

Existing Legal Framework and Reforms

India’s legal framework includes multiple safeguards for regulating sand mining. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 offers broad protection for natural ecosystems. The Supreme Court’s 2012 Deepak Kumar judgment made environmental clearance mandatory for even minor mineral extractions like sand. The 2016 amendment to the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification introduced cluster-based assessments, making replenishment studies a vital component of the DSR. Additionally, the Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines (2016) and the Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining (2020) require that the annual replenishment rate be calculated to determine sustainable extraction thresholds.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s insistence on replenishment studies reinforces the principle that environmental clearances must be based on sound science and sustainability, not just bureaucratic formalities. As river ecosystems face mounting pressures from human activity, this judgment serves as a critical intervention to prevent irreversible environmental degradation.

Vithalbhai Patel: Architect of Legislative Democracy in Pre-Independent India

• A two-day conference titled ‘Vithalbhai Patel: His Role in Shaping India’s Constitution and Legislative Institutions’ was recently held by the Delhi Legislative Assembly in New Delhi, commemorating one of India’s early political visionaries. Vithalbhai Patel, born on 27 September 1873, was a pioneering Indian legislator and elder brother of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. He played a significant role in laying the institutional and parliamentary foundations of India during the colonial era.
• Long before Vallabhbhai entered politics, Vithalbhai had already become an influential figure in the Indian independence movement. Although he did not fully subscribe to Mahatma Gandhi’s ideology, Vithalbhai joined the Indian National Congress and began his political journey with a successful election to the Bombay Legislative Council, backed by a loyal circle of supporters.
• Following the Chauri Chaura incident and the subsequent withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, Vithalbhai distanced himself from the Congress and co-founded the Swaraj Party with Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das. The party’s objective was to contest elections and enter legislative councils in order to disrupt British governance from within. Through his compelling and often witty speeches, he quickly became a popular public figure.
• In 1923, he was elected to the Central Legislative Assembly and, in 1925, became its President—the first Indian to hold this prestigious position. During his tenure, he used the Assembly as a platform to project India’s demand for self-rule onto the global stage. His international presence brought attention to the urgent need for Indian independence and broadened the global understanding of the Indian struggle. Vithalbhai Patel passed away in Geneva, Switzerland, on October 22, 1933, leaving behind a legacy of legislative activism and nationalist inspiration.

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): Custodian of India’s Historical Heritage

Context:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently faced public criticism regarding its handling of the ongoing Keeladi excavations in Tamil Nadu, particularly surrounding the controversial transfer of senior archaeologist K. Amarnath Ramakrishna. The episode has sparked concerns over transparency and institutional decision-making within India’s leading heritage organisation.

About ASI:

The ASI is the apex governmental authority responsible for the archaeological research, conservation, and preservation of India’s ancient monuments and heritage sites. Functioning under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India, the ASI was established in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham, who is often referred to as the "Father of Indian Archaeology." While it originated during British rule, the ASI underwent major restructuring after India’s independence to better serve national cultural interests.

Organisational Structure and Jurisdiction:

The ASI operates under the leadership of a Director General, appointed by the central government. It is headquartered in New Delhi, and its operational framework comprises around 36 regional circles, each overseen by a Superintending Archaeologist. The organisation also includes specialised branches focusing on epigraphy, prehistory, science, conservation, and museums, supported by subordinate offices like site libraries and research institutions.

Mandate and Responsibilities:

• ASI conducts systematic archaeological excavations and surveys across the country. It enforces the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, which governs the protection of over 3,600 centrally protected monuments, many of which are also recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The institution undertakes detailed studies of inscriptions, coins, manuscripts, and also operates site-specific museums displaying excavated artefacts.
• In addition to research and conservation, ASI publishes annual reports, monographs, and survey documentation. It also regulates construction activity near protected monuments and grants official permits for archaeological work. Furthermore, ASI engages in international collaborations with foreign archaeological teams and UNESCO, ensuring global heritage standards in Indian conservation efforts.
• The ongoing controversy surrounding Keeladi reflects the challenges faced by ASI in balancing academic integrity, public accountability, and institutional governance in its role as guardian of India''s cultural legacy.

Bloom Syndrome: Rare Genetic Disorder Diagnosed and Treated in India

• A 12-year-old girl in Chennai was recently diagnosed with Bloom Syndrome (BSyn), a rare genetic condition, and successfully underwent a bone marrow transplant using stem cells from her younger brother. This significant medical intervention highlights both the complexity and urgency of managing such genetic disorders.
• Bloom Syndrome is caused by mutations in the BLM gene, which produces a protein responsible for maintaining DNA integrity during replication and repair. When this gene malfunctions, cells lose the ability to repair damaged DNA, leading to growth delays, sun sensitivity, immune deficiencies, and a substantially heightened risk of various cancers.
• Also known by other names such as Bloom-Torre-Machacek syndrome and congenital telangiectatic erythema, the disorder is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. For a child to be affected, both parents must be carriers of a mutated BLM gene and pass it on. The syndrome is particularly prevalent among individuals of Eastern European (Ashkenazi) Jewish descent.
• Symptoms typically appear early, with poor fetal and postnatal growth, leading to below-average height and head circumference. Physical features may include a narrow face and head, long limbs, prominent nose and ears, and a high-pitched voice. Skin manifestations are also common, especially sun-induced rashes. Metabolic complications such as insulin resistance and an elevated risk of diabetes are often observed. Immune system impairments result in frequent infections, especially in the lungs and ears, and some patients may develop chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In adulthood, infertility is common in both sexes.
• There is no definitive cure for Bloom Syndrome, and treatment is largely supportive, requiring a multidisciplinary approach to manage various symptoms and prevent complications. In this recent case, the bone marrow transplant marked a significant intervention aimed at improving the patient’s long-term immune and hematologic stability.

ISRO’s Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-01): Paving the Way for Safe Human Spaceflight

Context:

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has achieved a major breakthrough in its human spaceflight program by successfully conducting the first Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-01) for the Gaganyaan mission. This critical test serves as a key component in validating the crew module''s recovery and safety mechanisms.

About the Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-01):

The IADT-01 is a specially designed air-drop experiment aimed at evaluating the entire parachute-based recovery system for the Gaganyaan crew module. The test featured a dummy crew capsule weighing approximately 5 tonnes, which was released from an Indian Air Force Chinook helicopter to simulate real-time descent dynamics. Developed by ISRO, the test was executed in close collaboration with the Indian Armed Forces and marked a significant step toward ensuring astronaut safety during the riskiest phase of human spaceflight—descent and landing.

Purpose and Objectives:

The central objective of IADT-01 was to validate the reliability, performance, and sequencing of the parachute deployment system. This system is essential for decelerating and stabilising the crew module during atmospheric re-entry and splashdown, ensuring the safe return of astronauts. The success of this test is crucial to confirming the functionality of systems that will be used in actual human missions.

Operational Mechanism of the IADT System:

• The test involved a highly structured sequence of events. Initially, a dummy module was airlifted to a specific altitude by a Chinook helicopter and subsequently released into free fall. Once released, two drogue parachutes—funnel-shaped for high-speed deployment—were deployed to stabilise the tumbling capsule and initiate deceleration. These were followed by the deployment of pilot chutes, smaller parachutes that served the purpose of extracting the three large main parachutes. These main parachutes deployed sequentially, significantly reducing the descent velocity to levels safe for splashdown.
• The parachute system was designed with built-in redundancy, ensuring that even if one main parachute failed, the remaining ones could still guarantee a safe landing. Upon descent, the slowed capsule splashed down in water, after which it was successfully retrieved by recovery teams from the Indian Navy and Coast Guard.

Significance and Impact:

The successful completion of IADT-01 represents a major milestone in ISRO’s journey toward human-rating its space systems, a prerequisite for carrying astronauts. The test boosts confidence in ISRO’s capability to manage the critical descent phase of space missions. It lays a solid foundation for upcoming missions, particularly the second Test Vehicle Demonstration (TV-D2) and the first uncrewed Gaganyaan mission (G1), propelling India forward toward its ambitious goal of launching a manned mission by 2027.

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve: A Crucial Ecosystem and Conservation Landmark

• The death of a 12-year-old tigress in the Singara forest range of the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR) has drawn attention to one of India’s most biodiverse forest ecosystems. Located in the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu, the reserve spans 321 square kilometers and lies at the tri-junction of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. It forms part of the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, India’s first biosphere reserve.
• Mudumalai is situated on the northeastern and northwestern slopes of the Nilgiri Hills, a segment of the ancient Western Ghats, believed to have formed nearly 65 million years ago. The terrain is undulating, with elevations ranging from 960 to 1266 metres. The Moyar River flows through the reserve, contributing to its rich and varied ecosystems.
• The reserve’s habitat diversity includes tropical evergreen forests, moist and dry deciduous forests, moist and dry teak forests, grasslands, swamps, and bamboo thickets. It supports a wide array of flora such as elephant grass, rosewood, teak, and wild relatives of cultivated plants like turmeric, ginger, and cinnamon. Swampy meadows, locally known as vayals, add further ecological richness.
• Mudumalai’s fauna is equally diverse. It harbours major herbivores like elephants, gaurs, sambars, blackbucks, spotted deer, four-horned antelope, barking deer, wild pigs, and mouse deer. Predators include tigers, leopards, and wild dogs. Notably, around 8% of India’s bird species are found within this reserve, making it a significant ornithological site.
• The reserve is also home to the famed Theppakadu Elephant Camp, which featured in the Oscar-winning documentary The Elephant Whisperers. The film shed light on indigenous communities and their traditional relationships with elephants, further boosting awareness of conservation efforts in the region.
• Mudumalai plays a critical role in the ecological balance of the Nilgiris and the broader Western Ghats, not only by conserving biodiversity but also by supporting sustainable human-wildlife coexistence.

Invasive Alien Species: India’s Underestimated Ecological and Economic Threat

Context:

A recent study published in Nature Ecology & Evolution has exposed a startling reality—India has been grossly underestimating the economic impact of invasive alien species (IAS). According to the report, management costs in India have been underreported by more than 1.16 billion percent, marking the highest global discrepancy in IAS-related data.

Definition and Recognition:

As per the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Indian legal frameworks, invasive alien species are non-native organisms introduced into ecosystems where they establish, spread, and pose serious threats to biodiversity, ecosystem stability, and human well-being. The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) defines these species as those existing outside their native ecological range and capable of causing widespread economic and ecological damage.

Key Traits of IAS:

Invasive alien species are highly adaptable, especially thriving in disturbed or fragile ecosystems. Their aggressive growth patterns allow them to outcompete native plants and animals for resources such as sunlight, water, and soil nutrients. They often exhibit a reproductive edge, capable of rapid breeding or vegetative propagation. Importantly, the absence of natural predators in the introduced environment allows them to flourish unchecked. Their presence drastically alters soil chemistry, hydrology, and agricultural productivity, thereby incurring heavy costs on both ecology and economy.

Global and National Impact:

• Since 1960, the global cost of IAS has exceeded $2.2 trillion, with non-native plants accounting for $926 billion in management expenses. Arthropods and mammals follow at $830 billion and $263 billion respectively. Europe has reported the highest regional expenditure, standing at over $1.5 trillion.
• In India, the spread of species like Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, Prosopis juliflora, and Water Hyacinth has caused immense damage across forests, rangelands, and wetlands. Iconic biodiversity reserves such as Bandipur and Mudumalai have been overwhelmed by lantana infestations. In the agricultural sector, weeds like parthenium have drastically reduced crop yields. Aquatic invasives, such as water hyacinth, have clogged waterways, negatively affecting irrigation and fisheries.

Ecological and Economic Threats:

Invasive species pose a severe risk to biodiversity by displacing native flora and fauna. In agriculture, they reduce crop productivity and increase the cost of inputs. Certain IAS are also allergenic, causing skin disorders and respiratory issues among exposed populations. Additionally, species like lantana increase forest fire risk due to their high combustibility, compounding the ecological damage. The hidden economic costs incurred in managing these species continue to undermine India’s developmental efforts.

Current Management Strategies:

India addresses the threat of IAS through various policy and institutional measures. The National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) outlines specific goals for IAS management. India, being a signatory to the CBD (1992), is internationally obligated to control their spread. The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) coordinates awareness and prevention strategies. International frameworks like the Ballast Water Management Convention help prevent marine invasions via ships. At the state level, eradication campaigns involve manual removal, biological control, controlled grazing, and reforestation efforts to reverse ecological damage.

Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC): Assessing Crisis and Famine in Conflict Zones

• A recent analysis by the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) has revealed that over half a million people in Gaza are currently enduring conditions equivalent to famine. This includes widespread starvation, extreme destitution, and rising numbers of preventable deaths. The IPC’s findings underscore the escalating humanitarian crisis and highlight the urgent need for global intervention.
• The IPC is an independent and globally recognised food security analysis system, primarily funded by Western countries. It serves as the main global framework for assessing and classifying the severity of hunger crises. Designed to prevent famine and mass starvation, the IPC supports timely response by alerting governments and humanitarian organisations to critical food insecurity situations. Nineteen major humanitarian organisations and regional bodies oversee its operations, and it typically works in partnership with national governments for data collection and analysis.
• The IPC operates using a five-phase scale to map acute food insecurity, with Phase 5 being the most severe. Within this phase, there are two critical subcategories: catastrophe and famine. When data suggests the potential presence of famine, an expert-led Famine Review Committee (FRC) is activated to assess the evidence.
• For an area to be classified under famine, specific thresholds must be met: at least 20% of the population must experience extreme food shortages, one in three children must suffer from acute malnutrition, and the death rate must reach at least two people per 10,000 per day due to starvation, malnutrition, or related diseases. While the IPC itself does not formally declare a famine, its rigorous analysis provides the authoritative basis for governments and organisations to make such declarations.
• The IPC relies heavily on data supplied by the United Nations World Food Programme, as well as other humanitarian agencies and national institutions. Its methodology is harmonised across three analytical scales: IPC Acute Food Insecurity, IPC Chronic Food Insecurity, and IPC Acute Malnutrition, ensuring consistency in assessments globally.

Matua Community: Legacy of Resistance and Reform in Bengal’s Margins

• The Matua community, recently in the news for protesting against the proposed special intensive revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in West Bengal’s Habra region, holds a unique socio-religious identity rooted in 19th-century Bengal. This marginalized Hindu sect is primarily composed of Namashudras—a lower-caste group within Hindu society—and has maintained a strong presence across West Bengal and Bangladesh.
• Founded in the 1860s by the revered social reformer Harichand Thakur, the Matua movement emerged in direct response to entrenched caste discrimination within the Hindu order. Harichand’s teachings emphasised the principles of social equality, dignity, education, and religious reform. These ideas gave rise to a spiritual and social movement that empowered Dalits and provided an alternative to caste-based exclusion.
• The Partition of Bengal in 1947 marked a turning point for the community. Faced with religious persecution and socio-political upheaval in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), many Matua families migrated to India. However, a substantial portion of the population remained in Bangladesh. Today, the Matuas constitute the second-largest Scheduled Caste (SC) group in West Bengal and continue to play a pivotal role in the region''s social and political landscape.

NAMASTE Scheme: Institutionalising Safety and Dignity in Sanitation Work

• The Government of India, through the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MoSJE), has introduced the National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE) scheme to eliminate hazardous manual cleaning practices. Recently highlighted by the Union Minister of Social Justice & Empowerment, the scheme aims to formalise the sanitation workforce and transition towards fully mechanised and safe methods of cleaning sewers and septic tanks.
• NAMASTE is jointly implemented by MoSJE and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), with the National Safai Karmacharis Finance Development Corporation (NSKFDC) acting as the implementing agency. The scheme is operational for three financial years, from 2023–24 to 2025–26.
• Its primary beneficiaries include sewer and septic tank sanitation workers (SSWs) and waste pickers in urban India. The core objectives are to achieve zero fatalities in sanitation work, ensure that all sanitation is performed by trained professionals, prevent direct human contact with faecal matter, and promote the formation of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) among workers to foster entrepreneurship in the sanitation sector. The scheme also envisions providing alternative livelihood opportunities to workers through skill development and financial assistance.
• NAMASTE represents a significant policy step toward improving working conditions for sanitation workers while promoting public health and urban cleanliness through systemic reforms and technological interventions.

INS Kadmatt: Advancing India’s Naval Anti-Submarine Capabilities

• Indian Naval Ship INS Kadmatt recently completed a three-day port call at Surabaya, Indonesia, as part of India’s growing maritime engagement in the Indo-Pacific region. Commissioned in January 2016, INS Kadmatt is a stealth anti-submarine warfare (ASW) corvette, built indigenously by the Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE) in Kolkata under Project 28.
• Named after Kadmat Island in the Lakshadweep archipelago, the vessel is part of the Indian Navy’s Eastern Naval Command. It is the second in a series of four ASW corvettes designed to protect naval assets from underwater threats.
• INS Kadmatt is equipped with cutting-edge weapons, sensors, and integrated electronic warfare systems. Its design incorporates stealth technology, including reduced radiated underwater noise, making it difficult for enemy submarines to detect. The ship also carries advanced radar systems for early warning, navigation, and fire control, along with underwater sensors and communication tools. It is capable of deploying the Sea King anti-submarine helicopter, and is armed with torpedoes, rocket launchers, and anti-aircraft guns.
• INS Kadmatt''s recent mission reflects India''s strategic commitment to strengthening regional maritime cooperation and maintaining a secure, stable, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.

Exercise Maitree: India-Thailand Defence Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism Training

• The 14th edition of Exercise Maitree, a joint military drill between India and Thailand, is scheduled to be conducted from September 1 to 14, 2025, in Umroi, Meghalaya. This upcoming edition marks the return of the exercise to Indian soil after a five-year gap and aims to further enhance bilateral defence cooperation between the two nations.
• Exercise Maitree is designed to facilitate the exchange of tactical knowledge and best practices between the Indian and Thai armies. It primarily focuses on counter-terrorism operations in semi-urban environments, honing the operational capabilities of both forces in joint missions at the company level.
• The last edition of this bilateral exercise took place in Tak Province, Thailand, and involved 76 soldiers from each side, including India’s Ladakh Scouts and the Thai 1st Battalion of the 14th Infantry Regiment. The continued conduct of Exercise Maitree reflects the strategic importance of Indo-Thai military collaboration in addressing regional security threats.

Fiji: Strengthening Ties with India Amid Strategic Pacific Importance

Context:

Fiji''s Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka is currently on a three-day official visit to India, marking his first such engagement in his present role. The purpose of this visit is to reinforce bilateral relations between the two nations and to deepen people-to-people connections, which have long been a defining feature of India-Fiji relations due to their shared historical and cultural ties.

About Fiji:

Fiji is a sovereign island nation situated in Melanesia, a subregion of Oceania, and is officially recognised as the Republic of Fiji. Renowned for its strategic position in the South Pacific and its abundant natural resources, the country holds geopolitical significance in the Indo-Pacific region.

Geographical Location and Features:

Fiji lies in the South Pacific Ocean, approximately 2,000 kilometres northeast of New Zealand. The nation is surrounded by the Koro Sea, and is part of the broader Pacific archipelago that constitutes Oceania. Its capital city, Suva, is located on the island of Viti Levu, which, along with Vanua Levu, forms the two largest and most populous islands in the country. These two islands collectively accommodate nearly 87% of Fiji''s population.

Island Composition and Terrain:

The country is composed of more than 330 islands, of which roughly 110 are permanently inhabited, in addition to around 500 smaller islets. Fiji’s landscape is of volcanic origin, and geothermal activity remains notable, especially on islands such as Vanua Levu and Taveuni. This geological character contributes to the nation’s diverse terrain and rich natural ecosystems.

Demography and Cultural Identity:

Fiji’s population predominantly descends from Austronesian and Melanesian groups, although the country also displays noticeable Polynesian cultural influences, giving rise to a unique blend of traditions, languages, and customs. This ethnic diversity is reflected in the country''s social fabric, cuisine, and religious practices.

Currency and Economy:

• The national currency of Fiji is the Fijian Dollar (FJD). The economy benefits from sectors such as tourism, agriculture, and mineral resources, while the nation’s position in the Pacific also makes it a key player in regional trade and maritime cooperation.
• Prime Minister Rabuka’s visit is expected to further enhance collaboration in areas such as climate resilience, development partnerships, trade, and cultural exchanges, as both India and Fiji look to expand their engagement in the broader Indo-Pacific landscape.