The phrase ‘feminisation of labour force’ or ‘feminization of work’ was first used by Guy Standing of the International Labour Organisation. He observed in his paper the fact that around the world there has been a rise in female labour force participation and a relative if not absolute fall in men’s employment, as well as a ‘feminization’’ of many jobs traditionally held by men. Feminisation is evident in developed as well as developing countries but both have distinct processes.

In the process of Globalisation the developing countries have been pushed into export-led industrialisation to generate foreign exchange. The traditional exports of the developing world comprising of raw materials with little processing have been replaced by labour intensive manufactured exports for developed countries. Women constitute 70 to 90% of workers in export-processing zones (EPZs), working in industries as diverse as textile, electronics or pharmaceuticals.  

Plant managers and owners deliberately seek out a feminized workforce as women are socialized to be obedient to males and to work hard. Patriarchal cultures also entitle managers to pay women lower salaries compared to male workforce. The workforce in these export units consists largely of young women who are single with no previous work-experience and many have migrated from rural or semi-urban areas.

The work conditions in export processing zones are abysmal by any standards. Women who come to work in these units accept wages much lower than the male industrial work force in the lowest rung. Further, the wage structure in the units is designed to increase work intensity to the maximum. The basic pay is scarce on which workers get allowances related to productivity, overtime, surrendering paid holidays and so on. Without the allowances the workers cannot survive so they are forced to increase their working hours and work intensity in order to merely survive.

Gender hierarchies are reproduced in workplaces with male owners, managers, and supervisors, and women assembly workers. Women complain of having restrictions regarding going to the toilet. There are many repeated cases of sexual harassment inside and outside the premises. Poor working conditions and long hours of work lead to occupational diseases which only means loss of job for these women. No compensation is offered either by the state or by the employer. They cannot unionise and collectively demand a better bargain. If a woman begins union activity, very often she is not only thrown out of her present job, she is blacklisted for other units. Further, there is active state connivance for continuation of these conditions. The reason why women agree to work under such conditions is that they do not have better choices outside.

The turnover in these units is high because young girls leave or are made to leave when they get married or have children. There is uncertainty in employment because the employer having invested little capital can shut down the unit anytime, or the subcontractor’s contract may be terminated as the multinational companies move over to greener pastures. In agriculture sector trade liberalisation has fuelled recent agricultural policies that are geared to diversification and ‘non-traditional’ or highvalue export goods. Some African examples include horticultural products and cut flowers in Kenya and Zimbabwe, tobacco in Mozambique and vanilla cultivation in Uganda.

In ‘non-traditional’ horticultural exports, low-paid seasonal female employment has had a crucial role. Increase in production of cash crop, fruits and vegetables for export etc. in developing countries have not only affected employment but also food security of the women.