100 Years of Ol Chiki Script

• The centenary (1925–2025) of the Ol Chiki script is being inaugurated on 16 February 2026 by the Ministry of Culture in New Delhi.

What is Ol Chiki?

• Ol Chiki is the official writing system of the Santhali language, a major tribal language of India.
• It is a scientifically designed script created to represent Santhali sounds accurately.
• Unlike borrowed scripts (Roman, Bengali, Odia, Devanagari), Ol Chiki was built specifically for Santhali phonetics.

Origin:

• Developed in 1925 by Pandit Raghunath Murmu.
• Created to give Santhali speakers a distinct written identity.
• First major literary work: High Serena (1936).
• Murmu is revered as Guru Gomke (Great Teacher) among Santhals.

Region and Linguistic Family:

• Language: Santhali
• Language family: Austroasiatic (Munda branch)
• States where widely spoken: Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Assam, and Bihar

Key Characteristics of Ol Chiki:

• 30 letters – Represents vowels and consonants clearly.
• One symbol = one sound – Direct phonetic mapping.
• Captures glottal stops – Unique tribal phonetic elements preserved.
• No conjunct letters – Simpler structural design.
• Indigenous design philosophy – Not adapted from Brahmi or Roman roots.

Constitutional Milestone:

• Santhali was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution in 2003 via the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act.
• In December 2025, the Constitution of India was translated into Santhali using Ol Chiki, expanding democratic access.

United Nations Fellowship Training Programme on SALW Control

• India is hosting the inaugural United Nations Fellowship Training Programme on Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) Control for the Asia-Pacific region for the first time in Asia.

What it is?

• The United Nations Fellowship Training Programme on SALW Control is a three-week capacity-building initiative aimed at strengthening government expertise in controlling the illicit trade and misuse of small arms and light weapons.
• It supports implementation of global disarmament frameworks, particularly the UN Programme of Action (PoA) and the International Tracing Instrument (ITI).
• Host: Indian Army
• Venue: Military College of Materials Management, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh

Organising Institutions:

• United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA)
• UN Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Asia and the Pacific (UNRCPD)

Aim:

• Strengthen National Capacities: Equip officials to implement UN PoA and ITI commitments.
• Enhance Regional Cooperation: Promote coordination among Asia-Pacific states on arms control.
• Improve Tracing & Stockpile Systems: Upgrade mechanisms to track and safely manage arms.
• Curb Illicit Arms Flows: Reduce diversion of weapons to terrorism and organized crime networks.

Key Features:

• Multilateral Disarmament Framework: Aligns with UN PoA and ITI to combat illegal arms proliferation.
• Asia-Pacific Focus: Brings together delegates from 13 regional nations to strengthen cooperation.
• Capacity-Building Orientation: Emphasises technical training in tracing, record-keeping, and stockpile security.
• Institutional Recognition of India: Reflects global trust in India’s arms management systems.
• Safe Disposal & Accountability Practices: Showcases India’s established mechanisms for responsible arms disposal.
• Strategic Security Context: Addresses threats from terrorism, insurgency, and transnational crime fueled by SALW proliferation.

Significance:

• Positions India as a regional hub for professional military and technical training.
• Reinforces India’s commitment to rules-based global order and responsible arms governance.

SAHI and BODH Initiatives Launched at India AI Impact Summit 2026

• Context (PIB): The Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare launched two national initiatives, SAHI and BODH, at the India AI Impact Summit 2026 in New Delhi.

About SAHI (Strategy for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare for India)

• The Strategy for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare for India (SAHI) is a national framework that guides the safe, ethical, and inclusive adoption of AI in healthcare.
• It focuses on areas such as data stewardship, governance, validation, and the deployment of AI solutions aligned with public health priorities.
• The framework guides State governments and health institutions on integrating AI responsibly into public health systems.

About BODH (Benchmarking Open Data Platform for Health AI)

• The Benchmarking Open Data Platform for Health AI (BODH) is a specialised platform for evaluating and validating the performance of AI models in healthcare.
• It was developed by IIT Kanpur in collaboration with the National Health Authority (NHA).
• The platform utilises Federated Learning frameworks to evaluate models on real-world data without exposing sensitive patient datasets.
• BODH functions as a Digital Public Good (DPG) under the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM), ensuring transparency in Health AI deployment.

Section 44(3) of the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023

• The Supreme Court referred a batch of petitions challenging Section 44(3) of the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023, to a larger Constitution Bench.
• Regime Transformation: Petitioners argue that Section 44(3) delivers a “body blow” to the RTI framework by converting a balanced transparency regime into a blanket exemption.

Key Features of Section 44(3) of DPDP Act 2023

• Section 44(3) of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, amends Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, 2005, granting statutory primacy to data privacy over the public’s right to information.
• Absolute Exemption: By removing all prior conditions, the amendment converts a conditional exemption into a blanket statutory bar on disclosure of personal information.
• Public Interest: Public Information Officers can no longer disclose personal data even when a demonstrably larger public interest is established.
• Legislative Parity: The proviso ensuring that information available to Parliament or State Legislatures must also be accessible to citizens has been deleted.
• Public Nexus: A connection to “public activity or interest” no longer serves as a legal justification for disclosure; the mere classification of data as “personal” is now sufficient for denial.
• Privacy Threshold: Removing the “unwarranted invasion of privacy” threshold makes rejecting personal-data requests the legal default for authorities.

Key Concerns with Section 44(3) of DPDP Act 2023

• Institutional Shielding: Public officials may invoke the “personal data” classification to deny access to asset declarations, educational degrees, or disciplinary records.
• Adjudicatory Loss: The amendment removes the discretion of Public Information Officers to balance larger public interest against individual privacy claims.
• Rights Hierarchy: In personal-data disputes, the Right to Privacy under Article 21 now carries greater statutory weight than the Right to Information under Article 19(1)(a).
• Statutory Conflict: The provision creates doctrinal tension with Section 8(2) of the RTI Act, which mandates disclosure when public interest outweighs protected interests.
• Administrative Chilling: Fear of high financial penalties under the DPDP Act for wrongful data processing discourages officials from exercising disclosure powers.

Towards a Structural Reset of Indian Federalism

• Forged in Partition’s shadow, India’s federalism privileged centralisation; today, a mature democracy demands balanced autonomy and cooperative governance.

    1. Constitutional Framework of Federalism

• Article 1: Declares India as a “Union of States,” ensuring indissoluble unity with constitutionally recognised States.
• Division of Powers: The Seventh Schedule distributes legislative authority into the Union List, the State List, and the Concurrent List.
• Article 246: Clearly demarcates legislative competence between Parliament and State Legislatures.
• Article 254: Establishes Union primacy in case of conflict on Concurrent List subjects.
• Fiscal Federalism (Article 280): Provides for a Finance Commission to recommend tax devolution between the Union and the States.
• Basic Structure Doctrine: Federalism recognised as part of the Constitution’s Basic Structure in S.R. Bommai (1994).

2.  Centralisation Trends

• Historical Centralisation: Power gained under necessity persists beyond crisis, limiting State autonomy. E.g., Single-party dominance after Independence reinforced central control over the States.
• Political Evolution: Coalition and regional parties enabled more balanced federal governance. E.g., Rise of regional parties in the 1990s improved State influence.
• Persistent Overreach: Centralisation hardened into a habitual practice despite strong national unity. E.g., Ministries in New Delhi duplicate State functions such as health and education.
• Legislative Override: Union uses laws and subordinate rules to override State priorities. E.g., Central overrides States in education policy reform.

       3. Need to Restore Federal Balance

• Fiscal Centralisation: Growing reliance on cesses and surcharges reduces States’ tax share. E.g., education and infrastructure cesses are excluded from the divisible pool under Article 270.
• Scheme Rigidity: Uniform CSS guidelines restrict regional flexibility. E.g., MGNREGA fund-use norms limiting drought-specific adaptations in Rajasthan.
• Concurrent Encroachment: Union laws increasingly dominate Concurrent subjects. E.g., NEP 2020 is influencing State curriculum and language policy decisions.
• Executive Overreach: Central agencies intervene in State domains, diluting accountability. E.g., expanded BSF jurisdiction in Punjab beyond the traditional 15 km limit.
• State Innovation: States drive policy breakthroughs through local experimentation. E.g., Tamil Nadu’s Noon Meal Scheme is inspiring the national PM POSHAN programme.

Fertiliser Sector Regulation in India

• Uttar Pradesh Govt.’s recent ban on the sale of non-subsidised speciality nutrients by authorised fertiliser dealers has sparked a debate about India’s fertiliser regulatory regime.

Current Regulatory Framework

• Statutory Pricing: The Central Government exercises absolute control by legally fixing the pan-India MRP of urea at ₹242 per 45 kg bag (exclusive of neem-coating charges and taxes).
• Administrative Oversight: Under the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS), the government enforces “Reasonableness of MRP” guidelines on Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilisers to ensure affordability.
• Logistical Command: The Fertiliser Movement Control Order 1973 empowers the Department of Fertilisers (DoF) to determine rail “rake” destinations and state-wise equitable supply plans.
• Branding Uniformity: The Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Urvarak Pariyojana (PMBJP) mandates a single brand name, “Bharat”, for all subsidised fertilisers.
• Digital Accountability: The Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system releases 100% subsidy to companies only after Aadhaar-authenticated sales through Point of Sale (PoS) devices.
• Market Restrictions: Recent directives in Uttar Pradesh prohibit authorised urea suppliers from selling non-subsidised speciality nutrients to prevent the forced “tagging” of premium products.

Arguments in Favour of Fertiliser Controls

• Inflation Insulation: Fixed urea pricing shields the domestic cost of cultivation and the MSP regime from global volatility in natural gas and phosphoric acid prices.
• Equitable Distribution: Centralised “rake” allocation ensures adequate supply in remote or logistically unviable districts that a purely profit-driven market might underserve.
• Ant-Tagging Safeguard: Regulatory restrictions on “tied-in” sales protect marginal farmers from the coercive bundling of essential urea with high-margin, non-subsidised nutrients.
• Leakage Reduction: Aadhaar-linked PoS verification curbs the diversion of agricultural urea to industrial sectors such as plywood, resins, and synthetic milk.
• Quality Standardisation: Uniform “Bharat” branding and stringent central oversight reduce the proliferation of spurious or sub-standard fertiliser mixtures in local markets.

Arguments Against Fertiliser Controls

• Nutrient Imbalance: The disproportionate urea subsidy has skewed the national N:P:K ratio to 11:4:1 against the ideal 4:2:1, accelerating soil fatigue and degrading long-term fertility.
• Innovation Suppression: State-level prohibitions on stocking unsubsidised speciality nutrients at subsidised fertiliser outlets discourage private R&D in precision farming tools like water-soluble NPKs.
• Brand Dilution: The “Bharat” brand mandate converts differentiated products into generic commodities, removing the incentive for firms to invest in extension services or localised soil testing.
• Regulatory Uncertainty: Sudden, retrospective prohibitions on legally approved non-subsidised products signal unpredictability and deter private investment.
• Liquidity Crunch: The post-sale subsidy reimbursement model ties up working capital for extended periods, making firm solvency dependent on government disbursement cycles.

Way Forward

• NBS Integration: Gradually transition urea into the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) framework to correct nitrogen bias and restore balanced fertilisation.
• DBT 2.0 Reform: Shift from “post-sale company subsidy” to direct-to-farmer bank transfers to enable market-based pricing while preserving purchasing power.
• Precision-Linked Subsidy: Integrate Soil Health Card data with the PoS system to discourage wasteful over-application.
• Nano & Green Shift: Scale up Green Ammonia and Nano-fertilisers to reduce the fiscal burden of LNG imports and the logistical “rake” costs of bulk urea.
• Speciality Liberalisation: De-link non-subsidised speciality nutrients from the restrictive Essential Commodities Act to foster precision-farming innovation.

NGT Clears Great Nicobar Island Project

• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) cleared the Great Nicobar Island Project, citing its strategic importance and adequate safeguards.

About Great Nicobar Island Project

• It is a Greenfield mega-infrastructure project designed to transform the Great Nicobar island into a global maritime and strategic hub.
• Implementation: It was conceived by NITI Aayog and is implemented by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO).
• Extent: The initiative covers 166 sq km (approximately 18% of the island), including denotified tribal reserves and protected forest areas.

It comprises four main pillars —

1. ICTT: The International Container Transhipment Terminal will be developed as a deep-sea port in Galathea Bay to compete with global hubs such as Singapore, Klang, and Colombo.
2. Airport: A Greenfield International Airport will operate as a dual-use facility, supporting both military surveillance and civilian tourism.
3. Power Plant: A 450 MVA hybrid gas and solar-based power plant is planned to ensure energy self-sufficiency for the new infrastructure.
4. Township: A modern city will be built to accommodate workers and residents.

Strategic & Economic Importance

• Maritime Chokepoints: GNI is strategically located near the Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok Straits, through which 25-40% of global trade passes.
• Geopolitical Counter: A permanent military presence serves as a strategic anchor to counter China’s “String of Pearls” strategy in the Indian Ocean Region.
• Economic Potential: The Galathea Bay ICTT is projected to generate ₹30,000 crore in annual revenue by 2040 and create over 1.5 lakh jobs.
• Domain Awareness: The dual-use airport enhances India’s Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) by enabling extended surveillance.
• Strategic Alignment: The initiative aligns with the Sagarmala Programme and Maritime India Vision 2030 while advancing Act East connectivity objectives.

Key Concerns

• Ecological Impact: The project requires clearing 130 sq km of pristine rainforest and felling nearly one million trees, thereby threatening biodiversity.
• Biodiversity Risk: Critics highlight the destruction of nesting grounds for Giant Leatherback Turtles and the risks associated with coral reef translocation.
• Tribal Displacement: The indigenous Nicobarese and Shompen (PVTG) face potential displacement and the loss of ancestral foraging grounds.
• Seismic Vulnerability: The island lies in Seismic Zone V and experienced severe subsidence during the 2004 tsunami.
• Afforestation Flaw: The government plans compensatory afforestation in Haryana’s Aravallis, which are ecologically dissimilar to tropical rainforests.

Mandated Safeguards

• Tribal Protection: A strict geofencing system to ensure zero contact between project workers and the isolated Shompen tribe.
• Turtle Conservation: The port and airport must install specialised “Dark Sky” lighting to prevent Giant Leatherback Turtles from becoming disoriented during nesting seasons.
• Coral Translocation: The proponent is required to scientifically translocate more than 16,000 coral colonies to safe sites before dredging begins.
• Seismic Resilience: All infrastructure must use advanced disaster-resilient technology to withstand seismic activity in Zone V.
• Oversight Mechanism: Three independent committees will monitor pollution, biodiversity, and tribal welfare to ensure strict compliance.
• Wildlife Corridors: Eco-bridges and underpasses will be constructed to maintain habitat connectivity for species such as the Nicobar Macaque.

UNEP FI Launched Impact Centre for Holistic Impact Management

• The UNEP Finance Initiative (UNEP FI) launched the Impact Centre to consolidate its “SDGs & Impact” workstream into a single, dedicated centre of expertise.
• Strategic Role: The centre serves as a centralised hub to help financial institutions align with sustainability standards.
• UNEP FI is a Geneva-based global partnership established in 1992 between UNEP and the private financial sector to integrate sustainability into financial market practices.

About UNEP FI Impact Centre

• The UNEP FI Impact Centre provides financial institutions with standardised tools and methodologies to assess the environmental, social, and economic impacts of their lending and investment activities.
• Core Objective: It mainstreams holistic impact management to align private capital with the SDGs and the Paris Agreement.

The Impact Centre operates through five primary workstreams –

• Impact Methodology: Global framework for portfolio-level sustainability impact assessment.
• Interoperability: Alignment of tools with global reporting standards like EU ESRS, IFRS, etc.
• Implementation Support: Assistance and capacity-building workshops for member institutions.
• Advisory Services: Integration of impact management into core business operations.
• Consensus Building: Harmonisation of global practices through the Impact Management Platform.

Centre manages a suite of resources designed for practical use by financial practitioners

• Impact Protocol: Step-by-step guide to analyse and manage portfolio sustainability impacts.
• Impact Radar: Classification of themes across environmental, social, & economic pillars.
• Impact Mappings: Databases linking economic activities to their specific sustainability footprints.
• Portfolio Analysis Tools: Digital tools to identify portfolio impact concentrations.
• Indicator Library: A repository of metrics for target-setting and performance tracking.

India-AI Impact Summit 2026

• The India-AI Impact Summit 2026 is underway at Bharat Mandapam, New Delhi.
• This event represents the first global AI summit in the Global South, positioning India as a voice for developing nations in shaping AI norms.
• It is being organised by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).
• Participation: The summit brings together over 100 countries, including over 20 Heads of State, 60 Ministers, and global technology leaders.
• Objective: To advance an impact-oriented, people-centric approach to Artificial Intelligence, emphasising measurable social and economic outcomes.
• Guiding Principles: It is structured around “Three Sutras“—People, Planet, and Progress—which set the ethical boundaries for AI deployment.
• Thematic Pillars: ‘Seven Chakras’ or working groups focus on areas like Human Capital, Safe & Trusted AI, Democratizing AI Resources, and AI for Social Good.
• Significance: It marks a significant transition from a “Safety-First” model to an “Impact-First” approach, positioning AI as a public good to bridge the digital divide.

6th Generation Aero Engines

• Defence Minister of India has asked DRDO scientists to develop an indigenous 6th generation aero engine within 5–7 years.

What is a 6th Generation Aero Engine?

• A 6th generation aero engine is an advanced jet engine designed for future stealth fighters.
• Unlike older engines that operate in one fixed mode, these engines can change their working style mid-air depending on mission needs.
• They are not just thrust providers. They also act as a power and cooling hub for AI systems, advanced radars, and future laser weapons.

How Does It Work?

• Cruise Mode (Fuel Saving Mode): The engine opens a third air stream, behaving like a high-bypass commercial jet to maximise fuel efficiency and extend flight range.
• Combat Mode (High Power Mode): The engine closes the third stream, redirecting airflow for higher thrust, rapid acceleration, and superior combat performance.
• Cooling Function: The additional airflow absorbs excess heat from radars, AI systems, and weapons, preventing overheating during high-intensity missions.
• Adaptive Cycle Engine (ACE): This smart system dynamically shifts between efficiency and power modes, optimising performance based on mission demands.

Key Features of 6th Gen Engines:

1. Adaptive Cycle (Three-Stream Technology):

• Enables the engine to switch between cruise efficiency and combat thrust, ensuring flexibility across different flight conditions.
• Automatically balances fuel consumption and power output, improving both endurance and agility.

2. High Thermal Management:

• Effectively dissipates massive heat generated by advanced electronics and directed-energy weapons.
• Functions as an integrated thermal control hub, safeguarding onboard systems during operations.

3. Embedded Electrical Power Generation:

• Produces significantly higher electrical output compared to previous engines, meeting next-gen aircraft power demands.
• Supplies energy for high-powered radars, electronic warfare suites, and future laser systems.

4. Advanced Materials (Ceramic Matrix Composites – CMCs):

• Operate at extremely high temperatures without structural degradation, enhancing durability and efficiency.
• Allow higher engine temperatures, which directly improve thrust-to-weight ratio and fuel performance.

5. AI-Based Predictive Maintenance:

• Uses real-time sensor data to continuously assess engine performance and detect anomalies early.
• Predicts component wear before failure occurs, reducing downtime and maintenance costs.

Report on Digital Payments after 10 years of UPI Launch

• Department for Financial Services, Ministry of Finance has released Report titled “Socio-Economic Impact Analysis of Incentive Scheme for Promotion of RuPay Debit Card and low-value BHIM-UPI Transactions (P2M)”.

Key Highlights of the Report

• Dominance of UPI: UPI is the most preferred transaction mode (57%), surpassing cash (38%).
• Global Leadership: India accounts for approximately half of the world’s instant payment transactions (49%).
• Merchant Integration: UPI adoption among merchants stands at 94%, driven by faster transactions and improved record-keeping.
• Economic Impact: UPI contributed an estimated $16.2 billion to India''s GDP in 2022 through cost savings and efficiency.
• International Expansion: UPI and RuPay are expanding internationally, with UPI live in eight countries, including the UAE, Singapore, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, France, Qatar and Mauritius.

Recommendations

• Expand Merchant Acceptance: Extend support for QR and soundbox deployment in Tier 3–6 and subsidize POS terminals.
• Offline Capability: Scale UPI Lite and 123Pay to serve low-bandwidth zones effectively.
• Financial Inclusion and Sustainability: Integrate UPI with Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) programs for government subsidies.
• Launch digital literacy programs targeting female entrepreneurs in rural areas.
• Other: Deploy AI-driven anomaly detection and real-time alerts to prevent fraud; Enable scheduled payments for recurring bills in education, healthcare; etc.

Challenges

• Network and Infrastructure Issue: Poor network and internet access remains a primary issue.
• Cyber Threats: Fear of data theft, online financial frauds etc.
• Lack of Digital Literacy: E.g. Advanced features like UPI Lite, 123Pay, and AutoPay have lower adoption.

Synchronised Terrestrial Bird Census in Tamil Nadu

• The Tamil Nadu Forest Department organised the Synchronised Terrestrial Bird Census (2025-26) to monitor avian biodiversity during the migratory season.
• Census Sequence: This terrestrial exercise followed the Wetland Bird Census, conducted earlier in the cycle in December 2025.
• Seasonal Adjustment: The Forest Department advanced the census schedule from March to February to capture data during the early migratory season.
• Migratory Sighting: Recorded species included the Indian Golden Oriole, Brown Shrike, Booted Eagle, and Blue-tailed Bee-eater.
• Resident Species: Common species were – Skylark, Jerdon’s Bushlark, Plain Prinia, Spotted Dove, and Red-vented Bulbul.

Lepidocampa sikkimensis

• Scientists from the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) recently discovered Lepidocampa sikkimensis, a new soil-dwelling micro-arthropod species in the Eastern Himalayas.
• Research Milestone: This discovery marks the first time an Indian research team has described a species in the Diplura group.
• About Species: Lepidocampa sikkimensis is a wingless micro-arthropod belonging to the primitive hexapod (six-legged) order Diplura.
• Appearance: It has a slender, translucent body that is distinctively covered in scales, and is characterised by two elongated, tail-like appendages called cerci.
• Habitat Preference: This organism thrives in the humus-rich soil and leaf litter of moist, temperate Himalayan forests.
• Distribution: Its known range is restricted to the Eastern Himalayas, with records from Ravangla (Sikkim) and Kurseong (West Bengal).
• Ecological Significance: The species plays a critical role in nutrient cycling and serves as a biological indicator of soil health and ecosystem stability.

Loggerhead Turtles

• A long-term study published in Animals (2026) shows that loggerhead turtles are shrinking in size and producing fewer eggs due to warming oceans and declining marine productivity.

Loggerhead Turtles:

• The Loggerhead sea turtle is a large marine turtle known for its massive head and strong jaws. It is one of the most widely distributed sea turtles in temperate and subtropical oceans.
• Scientific Name: Caretta caretta

Habitat:

• Global Distribution – Found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea.
• Nesting Beaches – Prefers sandy, high-energy, sloped beaches for egg-laying.
• Major Nesting Sites – Florida (USA), Oman, Cabo Verde, Japan, and Australia.
• IUCN Status: Vulnerable (IUCN Red List)

Key Characteristics:-

1. Physical Features:

• Large Head & Powerful Jaws – Crush hard-shelled prey like mollusks and crustaceans.
• Reddish-Brown Carapace – Slightly heart-shaped upper shell.
• Long Lifespan – Can live 70–80 years or more.

2. Reproductive Traits:

• Delayed Maturity – Females mature around 30–35 years of age.
• Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination – Warmer sand produces more females.

3. Behavioural Patterns:

• Long-Distance Migration – Some undertake trans-oceanic journeys of thousands of kilometres.
• Natal Homing – Females return to the same region where they hatched.
• Capital Breeders – Store energy over years before reproducing.

4. Ecological Role:

• Marine Food Web Regulator – Controls populations of bottom-dwelling invertebrates.
• Indicator Species – Reflects ocean health and climate impacts.
• Beach Nutrient Cycling – Egg remnants enrich coastal ecosystems.