Will benefits from genetic resources ever reach communities?

Over the last two years, there have been extensive discussions around the concept of access and benefit sharing linked to genetic resources. This has been at the core of discussions under the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) Global Biodiversity Framework; World Health Organization’s Pandemic Treaty; the Agreement on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA).

''International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture'' (ITPGRFA)

• The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (also known as ITPGRFA, International Seed Treaty or Plant Treaty), is a comprehensive international agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) is a comprehensive agreement that aims to establish a global system which provides farmers, plant breeders, and scientists with access to plant genetic resources.
• The treaty provides solutions to achieve food and nutritional security as well as climate resilient agriculture.

Aim and Objective

• It aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and sustainable use of the world''s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use, as well as the recognition of farmers'' rights.

Signing

• ITPGRFA is a legally binding comprehensive agreement adopted in November, 2001 at Rome during the 31st session of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, which entered into force on June 29, 2004

Participating countries

• There are 149 contracting parties to the Plant Treaty (147 Member States and 1 intergovernmental organization, the European Union). India is a party too.

Importance

• Countries are inter-dependent for PGRFA and consequently a global order is essential to facilitate access and benefit sharing.
• Thus, conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA are essential to achieving sustainable agriculture and food security, for present and future generations.
• It is indispensable for crop genetic improvement to adapting to unpredictable environmental changes and human needs.
• Because countries are interdependent in their reliance on PGRFA and the management of PGRFA is at the meeting point between agriculture, the environment and commerce, the International Treaty has established a multilateral system that facilitates continuous exchange of PGRFA (Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing).

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and it is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development.
• The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. The United States is the only UN member state which has not ratified the Convention. It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.
• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the CBD and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
• The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity is another supplementary agreement to the CBD. It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, and entered into force on 12 October 2014.
• 2010 was also the International Year of Biodiversity, and the Secretariat of the CBD was its focal point. Following a recommendation of CBD signatories at Nagoya, the UN declared 2011 to 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity in December 2010.

Global Biofuel Alliance can power India’s energy transition drive, but must have time-bound targets

• The focus will be on strengthening markets, facilitating global biofuel trade, sharing concrete policy lessons and providing technical support for national biofuel programmes
• The upcoming 14th Clean Energy Ministerial and Eighth Mission Innovation (CEM14/MI-8) conference, scheduled to take place in Goa from July 19-22, 2023, is likely to establish the Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA).CEM serves as a prominent international platform, bringing together influential figures to promote clean energy technology and knowledge exchange and facilitate the global transition towards a clean energy economy.
• Under the leadership of India during its G20 Presidency and with the support of Brazil and the United States, the alliance will focus on fostering international collaboration and cooperation to encourage the widespread acceptance and utilisation of biofuels.

Global Biofuels Alliance

• Aim: To facilitate cooperation and intensify the use of sustainable biofuels, including in the transportation sector.
• – The alliance will place emphasis on strengthening markets, facilitating global biofuels trade, development of concrete policy lesson-sharing and provision of technical support for national biofuels programs worldwide.
• – It will also emphasize the already implemented best practices and success cases.
• The Alliance shall work in collaboration with and complement the relevant existing regional and international agencies as well as initiatives in the bioenergy, bioeconomy, and energy transition fields more broadly including the Clean Energy Ministerial Biofuture Platform, the Mission Innovation Bioenergy initiatives and Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP).

Global Bioenergy Partnership(GBEP)

• Founded in: 2006
• Purpose: GBEP brings together public, private and civil society stakeholders in a joint commitment to promote bioenergy for sustainable development.
• Focus areas: The Partnership focuses its activities on three strategic areas: Sustainable Development – Climate Change – Food and Energy Security
• India is one of the observer countries.

Three-judge bench to hear pleas relating to criminalisation of marital rape: Supreme Court

The Supreme Court on July 19 said that a three-judge bench will hear a batch of petitions pertaining to criminalisation of marital rape after constitution benches conclude hearing some listed pleas.

Out of 185 countries in the world, 77 have laws that clearly criminalise marital rape while there are 34 countries that explicitly decriminalise marital rape, or in essence, offer immunity to men who perpetrate rape against their wives.

• India, is one of the 34 countries that have decriminalised marital rape.

Indian Law on Marital Rape

• Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC):
  • Section 375 of the IPC defines the acts that constitute rape by a man.
  • The provision, however, lays down two exceptions as well.
    • Apart from decriminalising marital rape, it mentions that medical procedures or interventions shall not constitute rape.
    • Exception 2 of Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code states that “sexual intercourse by a man with his wife, and if the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not rape”.
  • In October 2017, the Supreme Court of India increased the age to 18 years.
• Domestic Violence Act, 2005:
  • It hints at marital rape by any form of sexual abuse in a live-in or marriage relationship.
  • However, it only provides for civil remedies. There is no way for marital rape victims in India to initiate criminal proceedings against their perpetrator.

History of the Marital Rape Law in India

• Judiciary:
  • Delhi High Court:
    • The Delhi High Court has been hearing arguments in the case since 2015.
    • In January 2022, two judges of the Delhi High Court started to hear petitions filed by individuals and civil society organisations challenging the exemption.
    • By May 2022, they had arrived at a controversial split verdict. One judge was in favour of criminalising marital rape as it violated a woman’s right to consent, while the other was against it, saying marriage “necessarily” implied consent.
    • The matter was pushed to the Supreme Court.
  • Supreme Court:
    • In September 2022, a Supreme Court ruling on women’s right to safe abortions regardless of marital status held that for the purposes of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, the definition of rape should include marital rape.
  • Law Commission of India:
    • The need to remove the marital rape exception was rejected by the Law Commission of India in 2000, while considering several proposals to reform India''s laws on sexual violence.
  • Justice JS Verma Committee:
    • In 2012, the Justice JS Verma Committee was tasked with proposing amendments to India''s rape laws.
    • While some of its recommendations helped shape the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act passed in 2013, some suggestions, including that on marital rape, were not acted on.
• Parliament:
  • The issue has been brought up in Parliament as well.
  • Upon being questioned in a Parliament session in 2015, the idea of criminalising marital rape was dismissed with the view that "marital rape cannot be applied in the country since marriage was treated as a sacrament or sacred in the Indian society".
• Government’s Stand:
  • The Central Government initially defended the rape exception and later changed its stand and told the court that it was reviewing the law, and that “wider deliberations are required on the issue”.
  • The Delhi government argued in favour of retaining the marital rape exception.
    • The government’s arguments spanned from protecting men from possible misuse of the law by wives, to protecting the institution of marriage.

Issues with Marital Rape Exception

• Against Basic Rights of Women:
  • This exception clause violates the women’s fundamental right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, and most of all the right to life and personal liberty.
    • It also denies the agency over their own bodies to women.
• Dismal State of Judicial System:
  • Some of the reasons for low rates of prosecution in the cases of marital rape in India include:
    • Low reporting of crimes due to societal conditioning and low legal awareness.
    • Inaccurate method of collection of National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data.
    • Out of court settlements due to the lengthy process of justice/lack of admissible proof.

Exception on Marital Rape find its way into the IPC

• British Colonial Rule:
  • The IPC was implemented in India during British colonial rule in 1860.
    • Under the first version of the rules, the marital rape exception was applicable to women over 10 years of age which was raised to 15 in 1940.
• 1847 Draft of Lord Macaulay:
  • In January 2022, it was argued by amicus curiae (friend of the court) that the IPC is based on the 1847 draft of Lord Macaulay, the chairman of the First Law Commission established in colonial-era India.
    • The exception in the draft decriminalised marital rape without any age limit.
  • The provision is an age-old idea that implies consent by married women and protects the conjugal rights of the husband.
  • The idea of implied consent comes from the Doctrine of Hale, given by Matthew Hale, the then British Chief Justice, in 1736.
    • It states that a husband cannot be guilty of rape, since “by their mutual matrimonial consent and contract the wife has given up herself in this kind to the husband”.
• Doctrine of Coverture:
  • According to the Doctrine of Coverture, a woman has no individual legal identity after marriage.
  • Notably, the Doctrine of Coverture found a mention during the hearing when the Supreme Court of India struck down adultery as a criminal offence in 2018.
    • It was held that Section 497, that classified adultery as a crime, is based on the Doctrine of Coverture.
  • This doctrine, although not recognised by the Constitution, holds that a woman loses her identity and legal rights with marriage, is violative of her fundamental rights.

Marital Rape around the World

• About:
  • The United Nations has urged countries to end marital rape by closing legal loopholes, saying that “the home is one of the most dangerous places for women”.
• Countries that have Criminalised Marital Rape:
  • United States– From 1993, Marital Rape was criminalised in all 50 states of the US but laws differ from state to state.
  • United Kingdom– Marital rape has also been criminalised in the UK and those found guilty could be sentenced to life imprisonment.
  • South Africa- Marital rape has been illegal since 1993 in South Africa.
  • Canada– Marital Rape is punishable in Canada.
• Countries that have not Criminalised Marital Rape:
  • Ghana, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Lesotho, Nigeria, Oman, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Tanzania haven''t expressly criminalised marital rape of a woman or a girl by her husband.

EUs new subsidy regulation could hit India’s PLI scheme, exports: GTRI 

Foreign Subsidies Regulation (FSR)

• The European Union’s FSR entered into force on 12 January 2023.
• Aim: Combating distortions of competition on the EU internal market caused by foreign subsidies.
• It will allow EU to investigate financial contributions granted by non-EU governments to companies active in the EU, and prohibit the award of public contracts to a company that has unduly profited from foreign subsidies.
• It imposes mandatory notification and approval requirements for acquisitions of significant EU businesses and large EU public tenders, and gives the European Commission (EC) extensive powers to launch ex officio investigations.
• The EC is the sole enforcer of the FSR.
• In cases where the European Commission finds that a foreign subsidy is distorting competition, it can impose various remedies, including
  • fines of up to 10% of the company’s annual aggregated turnover;
  • requiring the company to repay the foreign subsidy if competition distortion is confirmed;
  • banning the company from participating in public procurement;
• What Counts as Foreign Financial Contributions under the FSR?
  • FSR covers financial contribution from non-EU governments to firms operating in/exporting to EU’s market.
  • Such a contribution may be distortive where it confers a benefit not normally available on the market to a company in the EU, and that benefit is specific to one or more companies or industries as opposed to all companies or all companies active in a particular industry.
  • The contributions include direct grant, low-interest loan, tax incentives on goods or services at below-market prices, and provision of land or buildings at below-market prices.
  • FSR applies to transactions above a certain threshold. Companies must notify the European Commission if their transactions involving foreign subsidies exceed this threshold.
  • For mergers and acquisitions, notification is mandatory if the combined value of the merging companies’ assets exceeds €500 million, but not necessary if the value of foreign subsidies is less than €1 million.

SC Collegium recommends elevation of four advocates as judges to 3 HCs

Collegium

• It is a system under which appointments and transfers of judges are decided by a forum of the Chief Justice of India and the four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
• It has no place in the Indian Constitution.
• What does the Constitution actually prescribe?
  • Article 124 deals with the appointment of Supreme Court judges. It says the appointment should be made by the President after consultation with such judges of the High Courts and the Supreme Court as the President may deem necessary. The CJI is to be consulted in all appointments, except his or her own.
  • Article 217 deals with the appointment of High Court judges. It says a judge should be appointed by the President after consultation with the CJI and the Governor of the state. The Chief Justice of the High Court concerned too should be consulted.
• Evolution of Collegium system:
  • Since Constitution mandates consultation with the CJI is necessary for appointments to judiciary, the collegium model evolved.
  • It has its genesis in a series of three judgments that is now clubbed together as the Three Judges Cases.
  • First Judges Case (1982):
    • SC held that "consultation" of judges does not mean concurrence.
    • Hence, it gave the primacy in appointment of judges to the Executive.
  • Second Judges Case (1993):
    • Court reversed its earlier ruling by changing the meaning of "consultation" to concurrence.
    • With this, the advice tendered by CJI became binding. However, the CJI would have to take into account the views of two of his senior most colleagues.
  • Third Judges Case (1998):
    • Court gave primacy to the opinion of CJI in the matter of appointment of Judges.
    • However, Chief Justice must consult four senior most judges of SC.
    • Opinion of all members of the collegium should be in writing.
    • Even if two judges in the collegium give an adverse opinion of a person for appointment as the SC judge, the CJI should not send the recommendation to the government.
• These three cases established that the collegium headed by the Chief Justice of India will have primacy in the appointment of judges to the higher judiciary.
• This collegium makes recommendations to the government for appointment of judges to the SC and of Chief Justices of High Courts, and the transfers of HC judges.
• In case of difference of opinion, the majority view will prevail.
• Executive role:
  • Judges of the higher judiciary are thus appointed only through the collegium system, and the government has a role only after names have been decided by the collegiums.
  • The government’s role is limited to getting an inquiry conducted by the Intelligence Bureau (IB) if a lawyer is to be elevated as a judge in a High Court or the Supreme Court.
  • The government can also raise objections and seek clarifications regarding the collegium’s choices, but if the collegium reiterates the same names, the government is bound to appoint them.
• Procedure for appointment of Judges to High Courts:
  • For appointments or elevations to the high courts, the HC collegium (The HC Chief Justice + 2 senior-most judges) makes the recommendation to the state government.
  • The State Government sends the names to the Centre with its input.
  • The Centre gives the names to the Intelligence Bureau (IB) to conduct background checks.
  • The IB then sends its report to the Supreme Court Collegium (CJI + 2 Senior-most judges).
  • The SC Collegium goes through the IB report and recommends the names to the Centre for appointment.

Arikomban enters Srivilliputhur Megamalai Reserve

Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve (SMTR)

• Location:
  • It is spread across the districts of Theni, Virudhunagar and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
  • It lies in the Western Ghats region.
• SMTR is India''s 51st tiger reserve and 5th tiger reserve of Tamil Nadu.
• It was formed in February 2021 by combining Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary and Megamalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
• It will function as a connecting link between Kerala’s Periyar Tiger Reserve and Tamil Nadu’s Southern Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
• SMTR will provide protection to Megamalai, the Vaigai River''s primary catchment, in turn helping water levels to rise in the river.
• Flora: It’s a blend of tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, dry deciduous and moist mixed deciduous woods, and grasslands.
• Fauna:
  • Mammals: Elephants, Tiger, Leopard, Nilgiri Tahr, Gaur, Spotted Deer, Barking Deer, Sambar Deer, Wild Boar, Porcupine, Nilgiri Langur, Lion-Tailed Macaque etc.
  • Birds: Red-Whiskered Bulbul, Common Iora, White-Browed Wagtail, Grey Wagtail, Pied Bush Chat etc.
  • Reptiles: Wood Snake, Monitor Lizard, Chameleon, etc.

Vaigai River

• It is a river in Tamil Nadu state.
• Origin: It rises in the Varushanad Hills of the Western Ghats.
• It travels through the Pandya Nadu region of Tamil Nadu.
• It is the major river in the fabled city of Madurai, the capital of the ancient and prosperous Pandya kingdom located in southern Tamil Nadu.
• The river finds a mention in Sangam literature dated to 300 before Common Era.
• Length: Vaigai River is 258 kilometres long.
• Tributaries: Its main tributaries are Suruliyaru, Mullaiyaru, Varaganadhi, Manjalaru, Kottagudi, Kridhumaal and Upparu.
• It finally empties into the Palk Strait near the Pamban Bridge in Ramanathapuram district.
• Vaigai Dam: The Vaigai dam is termed to be an important dam that is built across the river near Andipatti in the Theni district of Tamil Nadu.
• The river fulfils the drinking water requirement of five districts of Tamil Nadu namely, Theni, Madurai, Ramnathapuram, Sivagangai and Dindigul. It also provides irrigation to 200,000 hectares of agricultural land.
• The once perennial river is now completely dry, and animals in large numbers graze on its riverbed.

Universal Postal Union to evaluate UPI platform for cross-border remittances

Universal Postal Union (UPU)

• It is a United Nations specialized agency and the postal sector''s primary forum for international cooperation.
• It was established by the Treaty of Bern of 1874.
• UPU is the second oldest international organization worldwide**.**
• Mandate: To ensure universal access to postal services.
• Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland
• Functions:
  • It coordinates postal policies among member nations in addition to the worldwide postal system.
  • It sets the rules for international mail exchanges and makes recommendations to stimulate growth in mail, parcel and financial services volumes and improve the quality of service for customers.
  • It helps to ensure a truly universal network of up-to-date products and services.
  • It fulfils an advisory, mediating and liaison role and provides technical assistance where needed.
• Member countries:
  • Any member country of the United Nations may become a member of the UPU.
  • Any non-member country of the United Nations may become a UPU member, provided that its request is approved by at least two-thirds of the member countries of the UPU.
  • The UPU now has 192 member countries.
• Structure: UPU consists of four bodies,
  • The Congress: It is the supreme authority of the UPU and meets every four years.
  • The Council of Administration: It ensures the continuity of the UPU''s work between Congresses, supervises its activities and studies regulatory, administrative, legislative and legal issues.
  • The Postal Operations Council: It is the technical and operational mind of the UPU and consists of 48 member countries elected during Congress.
  • The International Bureau: Fulfilling a secretariat function, the International Bureau provides logistical and technical support to the UPU''s bodies.

Bharat Bill Pay''s business grew threefold in just 2 years: CEO Nupur Chaturvedi

Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS)

• BBPS is an integrated bill payment system or a platform which acts as a connect between various billers and users.
• It is a one-stop ecosystem for payment of all bills providing an interoperable and accessible “Anytime Anywhere” Bill payment service to all customers across India with certainty, reliability and safety of transactions.
• It offers customers the convenience of payment by cataloguing various utility providers under one platform.
• It acts as a central reference for a customer who wants to make different payments — whether utility bills, loan repayments, FasTag recharge, and so on.
• Different Payment Channels:
  • Bharat BillPay transactions can be initiated through multiple payment channels like Internet, Internet Banking, Mobile, Mobile-Banking, Mobile Wallets Bank Branch, Agents and Business Correspondents etc.
  • It provides instant confirmation of payment via an SMS or receipt.
• Who are the stakeholders?
  • BBPS was conceptualised by the Reserve Bank of India in 2013 and is a product of the National Payments Council of India (NPCI).
  • It was piloted in 2016 and went live a year later.
  • By 2019, BBPS onboarded all recurring payments.
• Components: There are two key components in the BBPS system,
  • Bharat Bill Payment Central Unit (BBPCU): The BBPCU is NPCI, which lays downs the operating procedures and standards for BBPS.
  • Bharat Bill Payment Operating Units (BBPOUs): BBPOUs adhere to the rules set by BBPCU. They are the banking and non-banking entities that handle the payments load.
  • Then, there are billers (utility providers) and agents, either as institutions or individuals, who provide services primarily on the collection side, to BBPOUs.

Yamuna Water Level Ghaggar River Flooding Impact

• Ghaggar, Tangri, Markanda and others are considered dead rivers in the state and heavily encroached upon but in this monsoon season they reclaimed their floodplains and caused heavy losses.

Ghaggar River

• The Ghaggar and many of its tributaries originate in the Shivalik foothills of Haryana, Punjab and Chandigarh.
• Among these tributaries, the Kaushalya, Tangri, Markanda, Beghna and Sukhna rivers are the ones that merge into the Ghaggar.
• The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season.
• The river is known as Ghaggar in India, before the Ottu barrage, and as the Hakra in Pakistan, downstream of the barrage.
• It eventually dries up in the Great Indian (Thar) Desert.

India recorded all-time high of 93% DPT3 immunisation coverage in 2022: WHO

DPT3 Vaccine

• The DPT vaccine is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus.
• The vaccine components include diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and either killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis or pertussis antigens.
• The primary dose of DPT provided as part of pentavalent vaccine and 2 booster doses are given at 16 -24 months and 5-6 years, respectively.
• Diphtheria:
  • It is an infectious disease caused by Corynebacterium diphtheria, a bacterium.
  • Vulnerable groups: Diphtheria particularly affects children aged 1 to 5 years**.** In temperate climates diphtheria tends to occur during the colder months.
• Tetanus
  • It is an infection caused by bacteria called Clostridium tetani.
  • When these bacteria enter the body, they produce a toxin that causes painful muscle contractions.
  • Tetanus bacteria are more likely to infect certain breaks in the skin
  • It does not spread from person to person.
• Pertussis
  • It is also known as whooping cough.
  • It is a very contagious respiratory illness caused by a type of bacteria called Bordetella pertussis.
  • Whooping cough bacteria attach to the cilia (tiny, hair-like extensions) that line part of the upper respiratory system.
  • The bacteria release toxins (poisons), which damage the cilia and cause airways to swell.
  • It can spread easily from person to person through the air.

ECI to issue digital time vouchers to National & State

Digital Time Vouchers

• The Election Commission of India has amended the existing scheme for the use of Government-owned electronic media by political parties.
• This has been done by introducing a provision to issue digital time vouchers through an Information Technology (IT) platform.
• Each party shall be given time Vouchers of different denominations of, 5 minutes and 10 minutes, equal to the total time allotted to it for telecasts on Doordarshan and broadcasts on AIR.
• That party shall have the discretion to choose any representatives and allow them to use those time vouchers provided that no such individual representative shall be allowed to use more than 20 minutes of the total time allotted to that party, either on Doordarshan or on AIR.
• Background
  • The scheme was initially notified on 16th January 1998, holds a statutory basis under Section 39A of the Representation of People Act, 1951.
  • It aimed at ensuring equitable access to government-owned electronic media during elections for campaigning.
  • Under this Scheme, an equitable base time is allotted to each National Party and Recognized State Party of the state concerned uniformly on DD & AIR.
  • The additional time to be allotted to the parties is decided on the basis of the poll performance of the parties in the last assembly elections from the respective States/UT or in the last general Elections to Lok Sabha, as the case may be.
  • The actual date and time during which the above telecasts/broadcasts will be made by the authorised representatives of any party is predetermined, by a lot, by the Prasar Bharati Corporation in consultation with ECI and in the presence of political party representatives.

A fascinating fusion of rock art at Rudragiri hillock

Rudragiri hillock

• It is located in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.
• It is nestled amidst the Eastern Ghats, features five naturally formed rock shelters at its foothills, facing westward.
• These shelters served as living quarters for people during the Mesolithic age around 5000 B.C and they bear witness to the luminous rock paintings of that era.
• Two natural caves at the southern end of the hillock also exhibit exceptional murals from the renowned Kakatiya kingdom.
• Key findings:
  • The first cave presents a narrative mural portraying the intense battle between the Vanara brothers, Vali and Sugriva. Both figures stand on the battlefield wielding maces, their faces displaying fierce determination. Rama, positioned behind Sugriva, shoots arrows at Vali.
  • A Ramayana fresco depicting Hanuman lifting the Sanjeevani hill with his right-hand painted A conch and fire altars can be seen to his right and another prehistoric painting to the left.
  • In the middle cave, a grand sketch of Hanuman, accompanied by sacred symbols of the conch (Sankha) and the fire altar (Yagna Vedi), captures visitors’ attention. Hanuman is depicted carrying the Sanjivani hill in his right hand, symbolising his mission to save Lakshmana’s life.
  • The third cave houses the prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic era.
  • Interestingly, the Kakatiya artist chose the same rock shelter to superimpose the elegant figure of Hanuman, who is portrayed in a unique ‘Anjali’ posture, folding his hands in a divine offering.
• The illustrious Ganapati Deva Maharaja (1199-1262 AD), the founder of Muppavaram temple and a prominent figure of the Kakatiya dynasty, likely patronised the rich ancient mural heritage found at Rudragiri.

Mesolithic period

• It is also called Middle Stone Age which existed between the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).
• Timeframe: This period is generally considered to have occurred between approximately 12,000-10,000 years ago
• Lifestyle: During the Mesolithic period, human societies were predominantly hunter-gatherer communities.

Handmade cloth toys recreate Assam’s Bodo culture

The plastic-free cloth toys in traditional attire tell the story of the Bodo community of Assam. After all, the dokhona is a traditional attire of Bodo women and the gamcha is a handmade towel woven specifically men in Assam.

Assamse Gamocha

• Assamese Gamocha is a traditional handwoven cotton towel, which is an integral part of Assamese culture and tradition.
• It is a rectangular piece of cloth. The towel comes in various colors and designs, and the most popular among them are the red and white ones with a Phulam known as the ‘Gamocha design’.
• The word ‘Gamocha’ is derived from the Assamese word ‘Ga’ (body) and ‘Mocha’ (wipe), which means a towel to wipe the body. The weavers use a traditional loom called the ‘Taat Xaal’ to weave the towel.
• Recognition:
  • The Assamese Gamocha has gained national and international recognition for its unique design and cultural significance. It was granted the Geographical Indication (GI) tag, which is a recognition of its origin and unique characteristics.
  • The GI tag ensures that the Gamocha is protected from imitations and helps to promote the local weavers and their traditional weaving techniques.
• Cultural Significance:
  • The Assamese Gamocha is a symbol of Assamese culture and tradition. The towel is used in various ways in daily life, and each use has a specific cultural significance.
    • It is used as a headscarf by women during traditional ceremonies and functions, and it is a sign of respect and honor when it is presented to someone as a gift.
    • The Gamocha is also used during the Bihu festival, which is the most important festival of Assam. It is draped around the neck of the Bihu dancers, and it is an essential part of their costume. The towel is also used as a symbol of unity and brotherhood during the Bihu festival.

Bengali Gamcha

• Bengali Gamcha traditional handwoven cotton towel, which is an integral part of Assamese culture and tradition. It is a rectangular piece of cloth. It comes in a red-and-white chequered pattern.