For the first time, 2 new genome-edited rice varieties: Why is this such a major breakthrough for ICAR and India’s agriculture?

• Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan released two genome-edited varieties of rice, the first achievement of its kind in the country.
• These two varieties, which are climate-resilient, conserve water, and boost yields, have been developed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) using cutting-edge genome editing technology.

Which are these two genome-edited varieties of rice?

• These have been named ‘Kamala’ and ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’. They have better stress tolerance, improved yields, and climate adaptability without any compromises with their existing strengths.
• DRR DHAN 100 (KAMALA): Developed by the ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research (ICAR-IIRR), Hyderabad, this variety promises significantly higher yields, improved drought tolerance, and early maturity compared to its parent variety, Samba Mahsuri (BPT 5204).
•  According to the ICAR, DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) has been developed using genome editing technology targeting the Cytokinin Oxidase 2 (CKX2) gene (also known as Gn1a), to increase grain numbers per panicle.
• “Using the Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1) genome editing approach, ICAR-IIRR scientists introduced precise mutations without incorporating any foreign DNA. The resulting mutant line demonstrated superior yield performance, drought tolerance, high nitrogen-use efficiency, and maturity ~20 days earlier (around 130 days) than its parent variety,” the Council said in a statement.
• “The new genome-edited line, officially designated IET 32072, was evaluated in multi-location field trials during 2023 and 2024 under the All India Coordinated Research Project on Rice (AICRPR). Results showed a 19% yield improvement over Samba Mahsuri, with DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) recording an average yield of 5.37 tonnes per hectare, compared to 4.5 tonnes per hectare for its parent. Under optimal conditions, DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) has demonstrated a yield potential of up to 9 tons per hectare,”
• The ICAR release pointed out that DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) retains the grain and cooking quality that makes Samba Mahsuri a consumer favourite.
• A It said that the Kamala variety has been recommended for cultivation across major rice-growing states, including Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala (Zone VII), Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (Zone V), Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal (Zone III).
• PUSA DST RICE 1: This new genome-edited variety has been developed over the widely cultivated fine-grain variety called MTU1010 by ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (ICAR-IARI), New Delhi.
• Developed through Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1) genome-editing, the new variety, Pusa DST Rice 1, targets the Drought and Salt Tolerance (DST) gene to improve the plant’s resilience to harsh soil and climate conditions.
• “The genome-edited line contains no foreign DNA, making it comparable to conventionally bred varieties,” ICAR said. The new variety was field-tested under the AICRPR during 2023 and 2024, and demonstrated “remarkable improvements in yield performance under various stress conditions”.
• The new variety is relevant for farmers of saline and alkaline soils, where traditional varieties underperform.
• According to the ICAR, Pusa DST Rice 1 recorded a yield of 3,508 kg per hectare in inland salinity, which is 9.666 per cent higher than its parent variety, MTU 1010’s yield (3,199 kg/ha).
• * In alkaline soils, Pusa DST Rice 1 recorded a yield of 3,731 kg/ha, which was 14.66 per higher as compared to MTU1010 variety (3,254 kg/ha).
• * And in coastal salinity, ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’ performance was even better. ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’ recorded a yield of 2,493 kg/ha in coastal salinity, which was 30.4 per cent higher than MTU 1010 (1,912 kg/ha).
• This variety of rice has been recommended for cultivation across key rice-growing states, including Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala (Zone VII), Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (Zone V), Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal (Zone III).

But what specific practical benefits will derive from cultivating these two new varieties?

• BIGGER YIELDS, LESS EMISSIONS: According to ICAR, cultivation of DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) and Pusa DST Rice 1 varieties in about 5 million hectares of the recommended area will produce 4.5 million tonnes of additional paddy, and a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 20% (32,000 tonnes).
• LESS WATER CONSUMPTION: “…Due to shorter duration of Kamala, three irrigations will be saved resulting in saving of a total of 7,500 million cubic metres of irrigation water, which can be used for other crops,” the ICAR statement said.

So are these varieties safe, and have they received all clearances required for cultivation?

• The ICAR scientists have used the revolutionary CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing technology, which won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020, to develop these two varieties.
• A This technology enables scientists to make targeted changes in the native genes of living organisms, creating new and desirable traits without introducing foreign DNA.
• “Two key approaches — Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1) and Site Directed Nuclease 2 (SDN2) — produce genetically edited organisms that are considered indistinguishable from naturally occurring or conventionally bred mutants. As such, they are exempt from the stringent biosafety regulations under Rules 7-11 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986,” according to ICAR.
• The Council said that the Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBC) of respective ICAR institutes had approved the lines, and the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) had granted clearance on May 31, 2023 for their classification under India’s relaxed regulatory framework for SDN1 and SDN2 genome edits.
• Therefore, these two varieties have received “appropriate biosafety clearance” under India’s simplified regulations for genome-edited crops. Some concerns about the Intellectual Property Rights of the technology exist, but they are being “looked after and will be resolved in times to come”, ICAR said.

Why is this breakthrough in paddy so significant?

• Paddy is India’s principal crop of the kharif season, and is grown on one-third of the entire area under all foodgrain crops. It contributes about 40% to the country’s foodgrain basket, and is critical to the nation’s food security.
• West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Bihar and Assam are the main paddy growing states.
• As per the Agriculture Ministry, paddy (kharif and rabi together) accounted for 45 million hectares of area, which was the highest in the world in 2020. However, in terms of production, India (186.5 million tonnes) ranked second after China (211 million tonnes). The reason is the lower yield in India. India’s paddy yield (4,138 kg/ha) was lower than the world’s average of 4,717 kg/ha, China’s (7,043 kg/ha), Indonesia’s (5,128 kg/ha) and Bangladesh’s (4,809 kg/ha).

Is India developing other genome-edited varieties of crops as well?

• Yes, research programmes on genome-editing have been initiated for other crops including oilseeds and pulses as well, officials said. The government has allocated Rs 500 crore for genome-editing in agricultural crops, and the University of Delhi has developed a genome-edited variety of mustard

 Why is the India Justice Report 2025 important for UPSC

• The IJR provides insights on the overall structure of the justice delivery system in India. It is the only comprehensive quantitative index using the government’s own statistics to rank the capacity of the formal justice system operating in various states. 
•  Last month, the fourth edition of the India Justice Report (IJR) 2025 was published, which tracks each state’s structural and financial capability to deliver justice. It was first published in 2019 with the support of Tata Trusts.
• The 2025 edition was undertaken in partnership with DAKSH, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Common Cause, Centre for Social Justice, Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, and TISS-Prayas
• It uses the filters of human resources, infrastructure, budgets, workload, and diversity to assess the capacity of four core pillars of the justice system to deliver to mandates: police, prisons, judiciary, legal aid, and Human Rights Commissions.
• 1. On policing, the report highlights continued concentration of police machinery in urban areas, and a decline in rural police stations between 2017 and 2023. The police-to-population ratio remains at 155 police personnel per 100,00 population – well below the sanctioned strength of 197. This often translates into longer investigations and compromises public safety. Just 81 police per lakh in Bihar exemplifies the situation.
• 2. On the judiciary, the report highlights a 20 per cent increase in pending cases, crossing the five-crore mark; shortages in court halls; vacancies in the high courts and district courts that stand at 33 per cent and 21 per cent respectively. There is an increase in the average workload in district courts – 2,200 cases per judge, while case clearance rate is at 94 per cent. This leads to a slower pace of justice and erodes public confidence in the justice system.
• 3. In prisons, overcrowding continues undeterred, with some running at over 400 per cent occupancy. The average overcrowding in prisons stands at 131 per cent. Prisoners awaiting trial stand at 76 per cent. Their guilt is yet to be proven, and the period of detention is constantly increasing, with one in every four undertrials spending between one to three years in prison pending trial.
• 4. The average daily spend per inmate stands at a mere Rs 121. This is indicative of inadequate funding, infrastructure and reform – falling far short of the vision of the Model Prisons & Correctional Services Act, 2023. The report also mentions the Amitava Roy Committee on Prison reforms.
• 5. On legal aid, the report flags concerns over optimal utilisation of funds, uneven human resource deployment and shrinkage in community-based legal aid services like village legal services clinics (one clinic for 163 villages). The legal aid workforce includes 41,553 lawyers and 43,050 paralegal volunteers.
• 6. On forensics, the report highlights significant capacity constraints – chronic underfunding, outdated infrastructure, and acute shortage of skilled personnel. Similarly, state human rights commissions suffer from persistent vacancies in senior-most functionaries and lack robust complaint disposal mechanisms.
• 7. On the positives, the report highlighted that in the district judiciary, the share of women judges has increased to 38 per cent. 83 per cent of all police stations in the country have at least one CCTV camera. The government’s spending on strengthening structural capacity saw improvement with increased budget allocations.

Rule of Law Index 2024

• 1. The IJR 2025 contains India’s rank across important indices, one of which is the Rule of Law Index 2024, released by the World Justice Project (WJP).
• 2. India ranked 79 out of 142 countries in the Rule of Law Index. It ranks the countries on eight indicators: constraints on government powers, absence of corruption, open government, fundamental rights, order and security, regulatory enforcement, civil Justice, and criminal justice.
• 3. In terms of delivering criminal justice, India ranked 89. According to the World Justice Project, “an effective criminal justice system is a key aspect of the rule of law, as it constitutes the conventional mechanism to redress grievances and bring action against individuals for offenses against society.”
• 4. India ranked 111 on the factor of the Civil Justice of the WJP Rule of Law Index. According to the WJP, “civil justice measures whether civil justice systems are accessible and affordable as well as free of discrimination, corruption, and improper influence by public officials. It also measures the accessibility, impartiality, and effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.

As states want more, the 16th Finance Commission will have to walk a tightrope on equity and efficiency

• In their suggestions to the 16th Finance Commission (FC), several states have argued in favour of increasing their share in the divisible tax pool. Some have even called for raising the states’ share all the way up to 50 per cent from the current 41 per cent.
• States do have a right to feel aggrieved. After all, even as the 14th FC increased their share in the tax pool to 42 per cent, and the 15th FC keeps it at 41 per cent (reducing it by 1 per cent with J&K becoming a Union territory), the central government reduced the divisible tax pool itself.
• It did so by imposing cesses and surcharges, revenue from which is not shared with the states. By 2021-22, the divisible tax pool had shrunk to 78.9 per cent of the Centre’s gross tax revenues, from 88.6 per cent in 2011-12, as per the RBI. Thus, states have, on average, received only 32 per cent of gross tax revenues over the past six years.
• The question then is: Should the finance commission accept their demand, and alongside, impose a limit on the cesses and surcharges that can be levied? This is not an unjustified demand. However, there are several issues to consider.
• One, considering the demands on the Centre’s budget, it will be fiscally challenging for it if overall transfers to states are increased further. States already spend around 60 per cent of general government expenditure.
• Thus, the states’ demand for greater fiscal autonomy could be met by increasing the share of untied transfers. This would mean that within the current level of transfers from the Centre, the composition of tied and untied funds needs to be reworked, which would require rationalising centrally-sponsored schemes. This, however, is tricky terrain.
• Driven by political considerations and/or the imperatives of economic development, successive Union governments have, through centrally-sponsored schemes, increased spending on items that fall in the state and concurrent lists.
• This has taken place despite grants to the states exceeding the Centre’s revenue deficit, effectively implying that it is borrowing to transfer to the states. This calls for a re-examination of the Centre’s expenditure priorities, which would create the fiscal space for it to spend on items on the Union list. However, political considerations may trump it, leading to a cash-strapped Centre sequestering revenue to fund its spending.
• The demand for an increase in untied transfers also raises questions over the quality of spending. Revenue balances are worsening in a number of states, implying that state governments are borrowing more to spend on the daily functioning of government departments and services, interest payments and subsidies, and not for productive purposes.
•  Even states like Karnataka have slipped into a revenue deficit. A high revenue deficit, which is driving the fiscal deficit in a state like Punjab, acts as a major constraint on capital spending from own resources. So, will more untied transfers create the space for higher allocations for revenue expenditure, perhaps on non-merit subsidies like power and water?
• The last few years have also witnessed a flurry of cash-transfer schemes. As per a report from Axis Bank, 14 states have announced income transfer schemes, adding up to 0.6 per cent of the GDP. One could well argue that India is moving towards some form of quasi-universal income transfer.
• These cash transfers are being financed through a combination of expenditure switching and higher borrowings. Given the allure of such schemes and the compulsions of the electoral cycle, will greater untied transfers lead to more resources being diverted towards such avenues?
• The third tier in India accounts for a considerably lower share of government spending when compared to countries such as China and South Africa (see Accelerating India’s Development). While, this is, in part, due to the constitutional framework, most states themselves are guilty of restricting devolution of functions and resources to the third tier.
• The finance commission should look into these issues as it moves towards finalising its recommendations

RNA-based antiviral offers strong defence against deadly agri virus

• Every year, farmers battle an invisible, relentless, formidable enemy: plant viruses. Unlike bacteria or fungi, which can be controlled with pesticides or fungicides, there is no straightforward way to cure crops of viral infections.
•  According to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), plant pests and diseases destroy nearly 40% of the world’s annual crop, costing the world more than $220 billion. Of that, plant viruses alone contribute to over $30 billion in losses each year.
• In response, scientists started tapping the power of RNA-based technology to help plants defend themselves better — just the way our immune system fights off viruses. At Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg in Germany, a team of researchers recently reported developing an RNA-based antiviral agent that confers strong protection against cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), a widespread and destructive plant virus.
• CMV infects more than 1,200 plant species, including critical food crops like cucumbers, squash, and cereals, and medicinal plants. It spreads through small sap-sucking insects called aphids. With nearly 90 aphid species capable of transmitting CMV, outbreaks are often difficult to contain.
• In India, CMV is responsible for 25-30% yield losses in banana plantations. In pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, infection rates can soar up to 70%. Affected plants develop a mosaic discoloration, stunted growth, and commercially unviable fruits.

HIGS and SIGS

• In the new study, the researchers used RNA silencing, a natural defence mechanism found in plants. When a virus infects a plant, it introduces double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is a red flag for the plant’s immune system.
• The plant responds by activating Dicer-like enzymes (DCLs), which slice the dsRNA into small fragments called small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). These siRNAs then guide the plant’s defence system to recognise and destroy the viral RNA, preventing the infection from spreading.
• But this process is far from perfect. Not all siRNA generated by the plant are effective and the virus often mutates rapidly, evading the plant’s natural defences. To strengthen plant immunity, researchers are exploring RNA-based crop protection techniques such as host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) and spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS).
• HIGS works by genetically modifying plants to produce virus-fighting dsRNA in their own cells. This provides continuous protection throughout the plant’s life. But regulations, high production costs, and the potential for viral resistance limit its widespread use.
• SIGS is a more flexible alternative. Plants are treated with RNA sprays instead of being genetically modified. Leaves absorb the RNA, triggering the plant’s natural immune response without altering its DNA.
• While SIGS doesn’t require genetic modification and is cost-effective and environmentally friendly, its effectiveness is limited: traditional dsRNA formulations produce a random mix of siRNAs, many of which fail to silence the virus efficiently.

Effective dsRNA

• To overcome the limitations of existing RNA-based approaches, the researchers developed a new approach that enhanced the effectiveness of RNA silencing against CMV.
• Instead of using randomly generated dsRNA, they designed “effective dsRNA” — genetically engineered dsRNA enriched with highly functional siRNA. These specially selected siRNA bind to the virus’s genetic material to trigger a stronger antiviral response. Their findings were published in Nucleic Acids Research.
• In a laboratory setting, researchers first screened siRNA candidates and identified the most potent siRNAs against CMV.
• These e-siRNA were assembled into dsRNA constructs to ensure that when the plant’s defence system processed them, they’d produce a high concentration of functional siRNA. This method resulted in a more targeted, more efficient form of RNA-based plant protection.
• The researchers also tested their new method by applying the more-effective siRNA and dsRNA directly to a model plant, Nicotiana benthamiana, infected with CMV. They wrote in their paper that plants treated with this siRNA had almost 80% lower viral load, with some experiments achieving complete protection. The dsRNA formulation outperformed traditional dsRNA because the plant processed them into active siRNA more efficiently, creating a stronger immune response.
• The team also found this method to be more effective against multiple CMV strains.
• The new approach has three key advantages: (i) It’s more precise because the plant’s immune system is directed toward the viral particles’ most vulnerable genetic regions, boosting its ability to fight infection. (ii) It provides a stronger defence because the more-effective dsRNA targets multiple regions of the viral genome simultaneously, making it harder for the virus to mutate and escape. (iii) The effective dsRNA can be redesigned in about a month to target new viral strains.
• Researchers currently apply RNA-based agents manually in laboratory conditions either by injecting or by rubbing them onto plant leaves. To make the treatment possible for real-world use, the team is currently developing spray-based solutions, and preparing for field trials to test their effectiveness in natural conditions.
• While the study focused on CMV, the principles of the new dsRNA technology can be applied to combat other major plant viruses, such as the tomato yellow leaf curl virus, the potato virus Y, and the tobacco mosaic virus. The researchers have also expressed belief that RNA-based approaches can be extended to target fungal and bacterial diseases as well as insect pests.

More time

• Despite its immense potential, one major hurdle is stability in outdoor conditions. RNA molecules degrade quickly when exposed to sunlight, rain, and soil microbes. The researchers are working on nanoparticle-based delivery systems to improve RNA stability and ensure long-lasting protection.
• Another challenge is cost and scalability. While production costs are falling, large-scale use remains expensive. This requires further innovation that makes it economically viable for farmers.
• Finally, regulatory approvals pose a challenge. The US Environmental Protection Agency granted the world’s first approval for an RNA-based crop protection product only in 2023; the regulatory processes in other countries including India may take more time

Ministry of Culture Takes Steps to Halt Auction of Piprahwa Relics by Sotheby’s Hong Kong

• The Ministry of Culture, Government of India, has taken swift and comprehensive measures to prevent the auction of the sacred Piprahwa Relics by Sotheby’s Hong Kong, underscoring India’s commitment to protecting its cultural and religious heritage.
• These relics, excavated from the Piprahwa Stupa—widely recognized as the ancient city of Kapilavastu, the birthplace of Lord Buddha—hold immense historical and spiritual significance.
• The Piprahwa Relics, which include bone fragments, soapstone and crystal caskets, a sandstone coffer, and offerings such as gold ornaments and gemstones, were excavated by William Claxton Peppé in 1898. An inscription in Brahmi script on one of the caskets confirms these as relics of the Buddha, deposited by the Sakya clan.
•  The majority of these relics were transferred to the Indian Museum, Kolkata, in 1899 and are classified as ‘AA’ antiquities under Indian law, prohibiting their removal or sale. While a portion of the bone relics was gifted to the King of Siam, a selection retained by Peppé’s descendants has now been listed for auction.
• Upon learning of the proposed auction, the Ministry of Culture initiated the following actions:
• The Ministry collected detailed background information on the auction and issued a legal notice to Sotheby’s Hong Kong to stop the auction immediately. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) also requested the Consulate General of Hong Kong to take up the matter with authorities there demanding the immediate cessation of the auction.
• During a bilateral meeting on May 2, 2025, Culture Minister Shri Gajendra Singh Shekhawat raised the issue with Rt Hon Lisa Nandy, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, United Kingdom. The Minister emphasized the cultural and religious significance of the relics and urged immediate action to halt the auction and facilitate their repatriation.
• The Secretary of Culture convened a high-level review meeting to outline further steps. The Ministry of External Affairs has been requested to engage with embassies in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong through its Europe West and East Asia Divisions to ensure the auction is stopped.
• The Financial Investigation Unit (FIU) has been asked to coordinate with its counterpart in Hong Kong to highlight the illegality of the auction and ensure compliance with international laws.
• The Ministry of Culture remains steadfast in its efforts to protect India’s cultural heritage and ensure the repatriation of the Piprahwa Relics. We call upon Sotheby’s Hong Kong to immediately withdraw the relics from auction and cooperate with Indian authorities to return these sacred artifacts to their rightful place

New metal-free organic catalyst can produce hydrogen fuel by harvesting mechanical energy

• Researchers have developed a novel, cost-effective, metal-free porous organic catalyst for efficient H₂ production by harvesting mechanical energy.
• In order to reduce the global warming and related impact of fossil fuels, transition towards sustainable alternatives based on renewable energy becomes increasingly critical. Green hydrogen (H₂) fuel has emerged as a game-changing renewable and clean-burning energy source, which generates no direct carbon emissions and only water as a by-product when used in fuel cells.
• Recognizing the critical role of green H₂ in sustainable energy, the Government of India launched the National Green Hydrogen Mission to drive large-scale production, promote research and innovation, and position the country as a global leader in H₂ economy.
• Among the environmentally benign methods of H₂ production, overall water splitting stands out as an effective and scalable technique that relies on a catalytic strategy since the reaction is energetically uphill. Piezocatalysis has emerged as a promising catalytic technology which harvests mechanical perturbations with a piezoelectric material to generate charge carriers that are utilized to catalyze water splitting.
• In recent groundbreaking research work, Professor Tapas K. Maji  from Chemistry and Physics of Materials Unit at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR) Bengaluru (an autonomous institution under the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India) and his research team have developed a metal-free donor-acceptor based covalent-organic framework (COF) for piezocatalytic water splitting.
• This study published in Advanced Functional Materials demonstrates a Covalent organic framework (COF) built from imide linkages between organic donor molecule tris(4-aminophenyl)amine (TAPA) and acceptor molecule pyromellitic dianhydride (PDA) acceptor exhibiting unique ferrielectric (FiE) ordering, which showed efficient piezocatalytic activity for water splitting to produce H₂.
• This discovery breaks the traditional notion of solely employing heavy or transition metal-based ferroelectric (FE) materials as piezocatalysts for catalyzing water splitting reaction. Conventional FE materials have limited charges confined at the surface only which usually lead to quick saturation of their piezocatalytic activity.
• In contrast, FiE ordering in a COF provides a multifold enhanced number of charges at the pore surfaces owing to the large local electric fields. The sponge-like porous structure of a COF allows the diffusion of water molecules to efficiently access and utilize these charge carriers for catalysis, giving ultra-high H₂ production yields and outperforming all oxide-based inorganic piezocatalysts.
• Using a simple donor molecule like TAPA and an acceptor molecule like PDA, Prof. Maji and his research team have built a COF system that has strong charge transfer properties, which creates dipoles (separation between positive and negative charges).
• The TAPA units have a unique propeller-like shape, where their benzene rings twist and tilt to break the flat symmetry of the structure, helping it reach a more stable, lower-energy state. Prof. Umesh V. Waghmare and his team from JNCASR, who are collaborators of the study, showed using theoretical analyses that this COF has an unusual electronic structure with energy bands that couple and resonate with each other by dipolar ordering.
•  This causes instability in the lattice structure, leading to FiE ordering. These FiE dipoles interact with flexible twisting molecular motion in the material, making them responsive to mechanical pressure.
• As a result, the material can generate electron-hole pairs when mechanically stimulated, making it a highly efficient piezocatalyst for water splitting for H₂ production. The team comprises four other researchers from JNCASR: Ms. Adrija Ghosh, Ms. Surabhi Menon, Dr. Sandip Biswas and Dr. Anupam Dey.
• The utilization of a cost-effective, metal-free system with a high production rate of H₂ by harvesting mechanical energy opens up a new route to green H₂ based on porous heterogeneous catalysts

Governor vs. State: Supreme Court draws the line

• The Recently, the Supreme Court, for the first time, ruled that the President should take a decision on the Bills reserved for consideration by the Governor within three months from the date on which such reference is received.
• Under Article 201 of the Constitution, the Governor has the power to reserve a Bill – passed by both Houses of the State Legislature – for the consideration of the President. 
• A The apex court invoked its special power under Article 142 and called for a decision within three months and added, “in case of any delay beyond this period, appropriate reasons would have to be recorded and conveyed” to the state concerned.
• The April 8 ruling came in response to Tamil Nadu Governor R.N. Ravi’s prolonged inaction over 10 crucial State Bills, withholding of consent on them and the subsequent reservation of the re-passed Bills to President Droupadi Murmu for her consideration in November 2023.
• Tension between the States and Governors often emerges due to the proviso to Article 200, which states that the Governor ‘may, as soon as possible’ grant assent to the Bills without specifying any definitive timeline. 
• A Therefore, the apex court’s ruling calls for a closer examination of the Constitutional provisions dealing with the role of Governors and their relations with the state, specifically in view of the fact that the Constitution has set no timeframe for a Presidential decision on a Bill reserved for consideration by the Governor.
• First, let’s look into the appointment and role of a Governor. 

Appointment and qualifications of Governor 

• The Constitution has laid provisions for the appointment of a Governor. Article 153 states, “There shall be a Governor for each State.” Article 155 says that the “Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal”. Under Article 156, “the Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the President”, but his normal term of office will be five years.
• If the President withdraws her pleasure before the completion of five years, the Governor has to step down. Since the President acts on the aid and advice of the Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers, in effect, the Governor is appointed and removed by the central government. 
• Articles 157 and 158 enunciate the qualifications of the Governor and the conditions of his office: (i) the Governor must be a citizen of India and has attained the age of 35 years; (ii) the Governor should not be a member of Parliament or a state legislature, and must not hold any other office of profit.

Roles of  the Governor 

• The Constitution also specifies that the Governor must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers of the state. Article 163 states: “There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in so far as he is by or under this Constitution required to exercise his functions or any of them in his discretion.”
• The Constitution also empowers the Governor to summon, prorogue, or dissolve the State Assembly. However, the Governor can exercise this power only after due consultation with the Council of Ministers. 
• As the executive head of the state, the Governor is entrusted with powers such as the appointment of the Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, Advocate General, State Election Commissioner, State Universities officials, Chairman and members of the State Public Service Commission and others. 

What recent judgement by the top court says 

• The Governor enjoys certain powers under the Constitution such as giving or withholding assent to a Bill passed by both Houses of the State Legislature. Under Article 200 of the Constitution, the Governor has several options:
• — To grant assent to the bill, 
• — To withhold assent, 
• — To return the bill (if it is not a money bill) for consideration by the State Legislature, and 
• — To reserve the bill for the President’s consideration. 
• However, proviso to Article 200 also states that the executive head of the State must return the bill “as soon as possible” but it does not mention any stipulated time, which has sometimes resulted in long delays in gubernatorial action. 
• In a recent judgment, the Supreme Court addressed this issue and laid down time-bound guidelines for the Governors to act upon a Bill:
• — Granting assent within one month, 
• — Not withholding assent contrary to the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, 
• — Return a Bill within three months, 
• — Expressing reservations on the bill within three months, and 
• — If the Bill is reconsidered and passed again by the Legislature, the Governor must grant assent within one month.

Committees and judgements on the Governor’s role 

• In various instances, the role of the Governor, along with the scope of their powers and functions, has been a recurring subject, which was scrutinized by various committees appointed by the Centre and the Supreme Court of India. 
• From the Administrative Reforms Commission in 1969 to the Punchhi Commission in 2007, several panels constituted by various governments recommended wide-ranging reforms regarding the Governor’s selection process, powers, functions, tenure, impeachment and other matters. 
• The Sarkaria Commission (1988) examined the centre-state relations and suggested reforms regarding the Governor’s power under Articles 200 and 201 of the Constitution. 
• The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2001), chaired by M.N. Venkatachaliah and initiated by the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government, observed that Governors, as representatives of the Centre, often act as its agents, and decisions taken by them often evoke controversy. 
• The Punchhi Commission (2007) reviewed the existing arrangements between the centre and the States and recommended that the Governor must be appointed with the consultation of the Chief Minister of the concerned state and there must be a timely decision by the Governor on the bills passed by the Legislature.  
• To ensure impartial functioning, the office of the Governor did come under judicial scrutiny on several occasions, with the Supreme Court of India delivering key observations to rein in the Governor’s power in several landmark judgments. These rulings served as points of reference in subsequent cases and shaped the functioning of this constitutional office. Some of them are:
• In Shamsher Singh vs State of Punjab (1974), the court declared that the Governor must act only on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers. In 1979, in Raghukul Tilak case, the court held that Governors are not mere employees of the Centre but hold a high constitutional office in their respective states they are appointed. 
• The S R Bommai vs Union of India (1994) can be considered a landmark judgement over the Governor’s decision on the President’s rule (Article 356) as it laid down clear guidelines that the floor test is final to prove the majority and the Governor’s actions are subject to judicial scrutiny. 
• In 2006, in Rameshwar Prasad vs Union of India with reference to the dissolution of the Bihar Legislative Assembly, the court firmly made it clear that the Governor’s individual opinion cannot be a valid reason for the imposition of President’s rule in any State. 

The Supreme Court''s ruling is anchored in several key constitutional principles that define the role and powers of the Governor in relation to state legislatures. Here’s a breakdown:

Article 200 – Governor’s Assent to Bills

• This provision allows the Governor to either grant assent, withhold assent, return a Bill for reconsideration (except money Bills), or reserve it for the President’s consideration.
• The phrase “as soon as possible” in Article 200 has often been interpreted loosely, leading to delays in gubernatorial decisions.

Article 201 – Reservation of Bills for Presidential Consideration

• If the Governor reserves a Bill for the President’s assent, the Constitution does not specify a timeframe for the President’s decision.
• The Supreme Court invoked Article 142, which grants it special powers to ensure justice, to impose a three-month deadline for the President’s decision, thereby addressing delays that disrupt governance.

Article 163 – Governor’s Discretion and Council of Ministers

• The Governor is expected to act on the advice of the state’s Council of Ministers, except in cases where constitutional discretion applies.
• The ruling reinforces that the Governor cannot indefinitely delay decisions contrary to the advice of the elected government.

Judicial Oversight Through Article 142

• Article 142 allows the Supreme Court to pass orders necessary for justice, filling gaps where constitutional provisions remain silent on timelines.
• By enforcing deadlines, the court enhances governance efficiency and prevents Governors from using discretionary powers arbitrarilY.

Empower panchayats to mediate, settle disputes, says President Droupadi Murmu

• Underlining the significance of mediation in resolving conflicts, President Droupadi Murmu Saturday called for effectively extending the dispute resolution mechanism under the Mediation Act, 2023 to rural areas so that the panchayats are legally empowered to mediate and resolve conflicts in villages.
• Addressing the ‘Launch of Mediation Association of India and 1st National Mediation Conference, 2025’, the President said that “we should see effective dispute and conflict resolution as not merely a legal necessity but a societal imperative”.
• India has a long and rich tradition of judicial mechanisms in which such out-of-court settlements were more of a norm than exception, she said, adding that the institution of panchayat is legendary for fostering amicable resolutions.
• She said that mediation fosters dialogue, understanding and collaboration, which are essential for building a harmonious and progressive nation. It will lead to the emergence of a conflict-resilient, inclusive and harmonious society, she said.
• Underlining the importance of mediation, the CJI said that it seeks to identify and remedy the root cause, goes deeper into the issue, and addresses primordial and underlying concerns that are the cause of the dispute. “It allows for a more holistic solution,” he said.
• According to the India Justice Report 2025 in the judiciary, there is a 20 per cent increase in pending cases, crossing the five-crore mark; shortages in court halls; vacancies in the high courts and district courts that stand at 33 per cent and 21 per cent respectively.
• There is an increase in the average workload in district courts – 2,200 cases per judge, while case clearance rate is at 94 per cent. This leads to a slower pace of justice and erodes public confidence in the justice system.
• On legal aid, the report flags concerns over optimal utilisation of funds, uneven human resource deployment and shrinkage in community-based legal aid services like village legal services clinics (one clinic for 163 villages). The legal aid workforce includes 41,553 lawyers and 43,050 paralegal volunteers