Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement Synthesis report by UNFCCC

NDCs embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change under Article 4 of the Paris Agreement 2015.

• The report finds that the NDCs submitted by 64 Parties, that account for 30% of global emissions in 2019, falls short of the emission reductions necessary to limiting global warming to 1.5 °C.
• To achieve this goal of 1.5 °C, the required emissions cuts must be 60% by 2035.
• However, the NDCs are only estimated to result in a 17% decline by 2035.
• Additionally, according to WMO Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, the levels carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in the atmosphere, reached new records in 2024.

Other Key highlights of the Synthesis Report

• Emission Trajectories: Implementation of new NDCs will result in a peaking of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, followed by strong reductions until 2035.
• Scope Progression: New NDCs show improved quality and credibility, with 89% of Parties communicating economy-wide targets, compared with 81% previously.
• Conditionality Gap: Measures for critical mitigation options like afforestation and reforestation and solar energy have high conditionality gaps, indicating they depend significantly on external support.
• Private Finance: Difficulties persist in mobilizing private finance due to low profitability.

Discovery of Dilmun Temple

• An archaeological team has unearthed a 4,000-year-old temple of the Bronze Age Dilmun Civilisation on Failaka Island, Kuwait.

• This marks the second Dilmun temple discovered at the same site, indicating two temples built successively between 1900-1800 BCE, a rare architectural phenomenon.
• The excavation revealed the complete temple layout, stone foundations, multi-room structures, and a central chamber resembling ritual sites in Bahrain and Eastern Arabia.
• Artefacts Recovered: Pottery sherds, seals and seal impressions, beads, and carved fragments.

Dilmun Civilisation

• Timeline: Flourished between 3000-1600 BCE.
• Region: Covered modern-day Kuwait, Bahrain, and parts of Eastern Saudi Arabia.
• Cultural Significance: Mentioned in Mesopotamian texts as a “land of purity, water, and prosperity.”
• Served as a trading intermediary between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley.
• People: Settled communities of traders, sailors, and craftsmen who developed advanced administrative systems and spiritual practices.

Movement of the Cyclones

• Cyclone Montha is moving north-northwest across the west-central Bay of Bengal toward making landfall along the Kakinada coast in Andhra Pradesh.

Factors Influencing the Movement of Cyclones

Atmospheric Circulation Influences

• Steering Effect: Cyclones move along the prevailing path of mid and upper troposphere winds (5-10 km), where large-scale horizontal atmospheric flow influences their speed and direction.
• Trade Winds: Easterly (east-to-west) trade winds in tropical regions steer cyclones westward, pushing them toward the eastern coasts of continents.
• Example: Bay of Bengal cyclones commonly make landfall along India’s eastern coast.
• Westerlies Influence: Mid-latitude (30°-60°) westerly winds (west-to-east) steer poleward-moving mature cyclones toward the northeast.
• Example: Atlantic hurricanes initially drift north from the tropics, then turn northeast toward Europe.
• Coriolis Effect: Earth’s rotation deflects moving air in cyclones counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, causing a slight poleward-westward beta drift.

Monsoon Wind Systems

• Southwest Monsoon: Southwest monsoon winds during June-September direct Arabian Sea cyclones north-eastward toward India’s western coast, especially Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• Northeast Monsoon: Northeast monsoon winds from October to December drive Arabian Sea cyclones westward toward the Arabian Peninsula and the eastern African coast.

Pressure Systems and Interactions

• Subtropical Ridge: Strong high-pressure ridges act as atmospheric barriers, forcing cyclones to deflect around or move along their boundaries.
• Example: The Bermuda-Azores High steers Atlantic cyclones westward toward the Caribbean or the southeastern US.
• Trough Interaction: Westerly troughs in mid-latitudes create low-pressure corridors that attract cyclones poleward and then north-eastward.
• Example: Arabian Sea cyclones often recurve northward toward India under their influence.
• Fujiwhara Effect: Two nearby cyclones rotate around a shared centre, mutually altering their path and speed through angular momentum exchange.

Moving Forest Dwellers from Tiger Reserves Must Be Voluntary: Ministry of Tribal Affairs

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has sent a brief titled “Reconciling Conservation and Community Rights: A Policy Framework for Relocation and Co-existence in India’s Tiger Reserves” to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Key Recommendations 

• Relocation must be voluntary, based on free, prior, and informed consent, without pressure or inducement.
• Forest Right Act (FRA) provides safeguards against forced eviction.
• According to FRA, no member of a forest dwelling Scheduled Tribe or other traditional forest dwellers shall be evicted or removed from the forest land under his occupation till the recognition and verification procedure is complete.
• FRA is applicable in National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Tiger Reserves.
• Establish a National Framework for Community-Centred Conservation and Relocation (NFCCR) jointly by the Environment and Tribal Affairs Ministries.

Key Challenges in relocation of forest dwellers 

• Rights vs protection models: Traditional forest conservation treats local peoples as threats rather than partners, undermining FRA’s inclusive vision.
• Livelihood disruption: Restriction of customary forest access and relocation from protected areas cut off income for many Indigenous groups.
• Uneven development & regional disparity: Forest-dependent tribal regions often lag in infrastructure, skills and access compared to high-income states focused on modern services.
• Sustainable Development Goals: Creating a balance between SDG-1 (No Poverty) and SDG-13 (Climate Action).

Kerala to Implement the PM-SHRI Scheme

• Kerala has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Centre to implement the PM Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) scheme.

PM-SHRI

• The PM-SHRI scheme, launched in 2022, is a centrally sponsored scheme to develop more than 14,500 existing schools across India.
• Objective: to transform existing government-run schools into model institutions exemplifying the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
• Nodal Agency: The Department of School Education and Literacy, under the Ministry of Education.
• Implementation: It is implemented through the existing administrative structure available for Samagra Shiksha, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), and Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS).

Key Features

• Green Schools: PM-SHRI schools incorporate eco-friendly features like solar panels, LED lights, water conservation, and waste management systems.
• Selection Method: Schools are chosen through a three-stage Challenge Mode, with schools self-applying through an online portal.
• Evaluation Framework: A School Quality Assessment Framework (SAQF) has been developed to monitor learning outcomes.

Eighth Session of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) Assembly Held in New Delhi

ISA

• Genesis: It is a global intergovernmental organization launched in 2015 by India and France at COP21 in Paris.
• It is the largest treaty-based intergovernmental organisation from the Global South.
• Headquarters: Gurugram, India. It is the first international intergovernmental organization headquartered in India.
• Membership: 124 Member and Signatory Countries.
• Following a 2020 amendment to its Framework Agreement, all UN member states are now eligible to join the Alliance.
• Aim: To bring clean, reliable, and affordable energy to communities, driving sustainable growth and improving quality of life.
• Mission: To unlock $1 trillion in solar investments by 2030 while reducing technology and financing costs.
• Collaborative Initiatives: SolarX Startup Challenge, STAR-C Initiative,Global Solar Facility, One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG) etc.

Key highlights of the Session

• Launch of SUNRISE (Solar Upcycling Network for Recycling, Innovation & Stakeholder Engagement): A global initiative to promote solar waste recycling, green employment, and circular economy.
• Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Procurement MoU: 16 SIDS joined hands under an ISA-World Bank platform for coordinated solar procurement and capacity building.
• Released ISA’s flagship reports: Ease of Doing Solar 2025 and Solar Trends 2025.
• Other: Global Capability Centre was unveiled to create a Silicon Valley for Solar in India, ISA Academy ( AI-based online learning platform) launched.

Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme

• The Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MeitY) approved seven private investment projects worth ₹5,532 crore under Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme (ECMS).

Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme

• The objective is to build a robust component manufacturing ecosystem by attracting global and domestic investments and integrating India’s electronics industry with Global Value Chains (GVCs)
• Offers 1–10% production incentives for six years to boost local manufacturing and cut import dependence on critical materials like polypropylene film, copper laminates, and PCBs.
• The scheme runs for six years with a one-year gestation period, spanning FY2025-26 to FY2031-32.
• It complements PLI for Large-Scale Electronics Manufacturing and Semicon India Programme.

8^th Central Pay Commission

• The Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, has approved the Terms of Reference (ToR) for the 8^th Central Pay Commission (CPC).

Terms of Reference of the 8^th Pay Commission

• Pension Reform: Update pension and retirement benefits for serving and retired employees.
• Fiscal Prudence: Align pay revision with fiscal capacity and macroeconomic stability.
• Development Focus: Protect funds for welfare and infrastructure while revising pay scales.
• Legacy Pensions: Assess the unfunded burden of pre-NPS pension liabilities (new inclusion).
• Parity Across Sectors: Ensure balance with pay structures in states, CPSEs, and the private sector.
• State Impact: Evaluate financial implications on state budgets adopting CPC recommendations.

Significance and Challenges of the 8^th Pay Commission

• Significance of 8^th Pay Commission: Covers 1.2 crore beneficiaries, boosts demand like 7^th CPC’s ₹1 lakh crore payout (~0.4% GDP growth), raises morale in Defence (13.5 lakh) and Railways (12 lakh), ensures pay parity & social equity, and aligns revisions with FRBM targets (<4.5% fiscal deficit by FY26).
• Challenges Before 8^th Pay Commission: Adds ₹1.5–2 lakh crore annual fiscal burden (~0.5% GDP), risks inflationary rise and state fiscal stress (Punjab 3.5%, Rajasthan 3.3%), excludes OPS and welfare demands, and faces a productivity-pay mismatch with widening public–private wage gap.
• Way Forward: Adopt performance-linked pay, enable digital audits via iGOT Karmayogi, enforce a Wage–GDP cap for fiscal discipline, form a Pay Coordination Council, integrate equity audits, and ensure phased implementation to manage fiscal impact.

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)’s Sustainable Food Systems report highlights India’s soil health

The report finds severe nutrient deficiencies in Indian soils based on the Soil Health Card Scheme data.

Key Findings

• Soil nutrient deficiencies:
• Nitrogen: 64% of samples tested ''low'' for Nitrogen (N).
• Organic Carbon (SOC) Deficit: 48.5% of samples tested ''low'' for SOC, a crucial indicator for soil structure and microbial abundance. 
• Over 43% of districts at ''very high'' climate risk also showed low SOC levels.
• Micronutrient Shortages: 55.4% of samples tested ''low'' for Boron, and 35% for Zinc.
• High Urea Consumption: Fertilizer consumption is heavily skewed towards urea, which is about 68 per cent of total fertilizer consumption in 2023-24.

Implications of soil nutrient deficiencies

• Threat to crop productivity, food security, farmer’s income and sustainable agriculture.
• Reduced capacity for carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.

Recommendations

• Expand Current Soil Monitoring under SHC to include physical (texture, compaction) and biological (microbial activity) indicators.
• Reform fertiliser subsidy policy to incentivise balanced and efficient use.
• Use biochar to improve fertility, moisture retention, and carbon storage.

NITI Aayog Reports on the Service Sector

• NITI Aayog released two inaugural reports under the Services Thematic Series titled “Insights from GVA Trends and State-Level Dynamics” and “Insights from Employment Trends and State-Level Dynamics.”

• These mark India’s first dedicated macro-level assessment of the service sector through output and employment linkages.

Key Findings of the Reports

Growth and Regional Patterns

• Economic Pillar: The services sector contributed 55% to India’s Gross Value Added (GVA) in 2024-25, up from 51% in 2013-14.
• Income Correlation: States with higher service-sector shares in GSVA (i.e., Karnataka, Telangana, Maharashtra, Delhi, Chandigarh) show higher per capita incomes.
• Beta Convergence: Broad-based, spatially inclusive service-led growth is enabling lagging states to gradually catch up with advanced ones.
• Digital Expansion: The digital and knowledge-based economy leads the sector, with GVA from Computer and Information Services rising fourfold since 2011-12.
• External Strength: The services sector attracted the highest FDI share (19%) and contributed $387.5 billion to India’s total export earnings in 2024-25.

Employment and Urbanisation

• Workforce Share: The services sector employs around 188 million people, accounting for 29.7% of India’s total workforce. It generated nearly 40 million new jobs in six years.
• Global Lag: India’s service employment share remains below the global average of 50%.
• Labour Elasticity: Job responsiveness improved as employment elasticity rose from 0.35 before COVID to 0.63 after. More jobs are now created per unit of growth.
• Urban Dependence: Around 60% of urban workers are in services, while only 18.9% of rural workers depend on it.

Inequality and Disparities

• Gender Divide: Only 10.5% of rural women work in services, compared to 24% of rural men. Urban participation is roughly equal at 60% for both.
• Wage Gap: Rural women earn about 47-50% of men’s wages, compared to 84% in urban areas.

• Informal Dominance: Most service workers lack formal contracts, social protections, or benefits, especially in traditional sub-sectors like trade, repair, and transport.

20^th East Asia Summit

• CThe 20^th East Asia Summit, held in Malaysia, adopted the Kuala Lumpur Declaration reaffirming its commitment to peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific.

East Asia Summit (EAS)

• The East Asia Summit (EAS) is an ASEAN-led annual forum in the Indo-Pacific that addresses regional political, security, and economic issues.
• Formation: Established in 2005 in Kuala Lumpur, it remains the only leader-led forum in the Indo-Pacific dedicated to strategic dialogue.
• Members: 18 Countries; 10 ASEAN members and 8 dialogue partners (India, China, Japan, US, Russia, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea). Chairmanship rotates annually among ASEAN members.
• Timor-Leste has become the 11^th member of ASEAN, bringing the total membership to 19.
• Objective: To promote regional peace, prosperity, and rule-based cooperation through open dialogue.
• Core Principles: Upholds openness, inclusivity, and respect for international law with ASEAN centrality.
• Six Focus Areas: (a) Environment and energy, (b) Education, (c) Finance, (d) Global health, (e) Natural disaster management, and (f) ASEAN connectivity.

20^th East Asia Summit

• The 20^th East Asia Summit was held in Kuala Lumpur in October 2025 alongside the 47^th ASEAN Summit under Malaysia’s chairmanship.
• Theme: “Inclusivity and Sustainability”.
• Key Outcome: The summit adopted the ‘Kuala Lumpur Declaration’, reaffirming collective commitment to peace, stability, multilateralism, and ASEAN centrality.

SJ-100 Civil Aircraft

• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) has signed a MoU with Russia’s PJSC United Aircraft Corporation (UAC) for the domestic production of the SJ-100 civil commuter aircraft.

SJ-100

• The SJ-100 is a twin-engine, narrow-body commuter aircraft, already in service with over 16 commercial airlines globally.
• Russia’s SJ-100 aircraft is a new-generation regional jet with a seating capacity of 103 passengers and a flight range of 3,530 km, designed for medium-haul routes.
• Key features are engineered for low operating costs and capable of functioning in extreme temperatures ranging from -55°C to +45°C, enhancing its adaptability for diverse climatic conditions.

Significance of the Collaboration

• HAL will now hold the manufacturing rights for the SJ-100 in India, marking the country’s first full-scale passenger aircraft production since the AVRO HS748 project (1961-1988).
• The aircraft is expected to become a “game changer” for short-haul and regional connectivity under the UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) Scheme, enhancing accessibility to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities.
• India’s aviation sector is projected to require over 200 aircraft of this category within the next decade, driven by expanding regional air networks.
• An additional 350 aircraft may be needed for the Indian Ocean region, catering to short international routes and tourism hubs.

United Nations Convention against Cybercrime

• At least 72 of the 193 UN member states signed the United Nations Convention against Cybercrime in Hanoi, Vietnam, marking the first global treaty to combat cybercrime.

 United Nations Convention against Cybercrime

• The UN Convention against Cybercrime is the first international treaty dedicated to preventing, investigating, and prosecuting cybercrimes globally.
• Adoption: Adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 2024 (Resolution 79/243) and opened for signature in October 2025 in Hanoi, Viet Nam.
• It will become legally binding 90 days after 40 countries ratify it.
• Scope: Covers both cyber-dependent crimes like hacking and ransomware, and cyber-enabled crimes such as online fraud and trafficking.
• Secretariat: The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).

Key Provisions

• Privacy Protection: Makes the non-consensual sharing of intimate images a criminal offence under international law for the first time.
• Cross-Border Cooperation: Establishes a 24/7 global network for quick evidence sharing and coordination in cross-border investigations.
• Digital Evidence: Introduces uniform global standards for collecting, using, and sharing electronic evidence in serious cybercrime cases.
• Asset Recovery: Allows freezing, confiscation, and repatriation of cybercrime proceeds to dismantle illicit financial networks.
• Research Freedom: Exempts legitimate cybersecurity research from criminal liability to encourage innovation and capacity building.
• Capacity Building: Provides training and technical support, especially to developing countries, to strengthen national cybercrime response mechanisms.
• Rights Safeguards: Requires that all actions under the treaty comply with international human rights law and judicial oversight.

Implementation Measures

• Domestic Legislation: Countries must mandate national laws to criminalise offences such as hacking, malware, and online exploitation.
• Central Authority: Each member state will appoint a central authority to coordinate legal assistance and evidence-sharing requests.
• Victim Support: Parties must ensure protection, rehabilitation, and compensation mechanisms for victims of cybercrimes.
• Legal Cooperation: Member countries should extend maximum cooperation in investigations, prosecutions, and judicial processes.
• States may refuse cooperation due to sovereignty, public order, or data protection concerns.

Sunni Dam Hydroelectric Project

• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has taken suo motu cognisance of a complaint alleging illegal dumping into the Sutlej River during the Construction of the Sunni Dam Hydroelectric Project.

Sunni Dam Hydroelectric Project

• The Sunni Dam Hydroelectric Project is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric project under construction on the Sutlej River in the Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh.
• The project is being implemented by Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (SJVN), a joint venture between the Government of India and the Government of Himachal Pradesh.
• It forms a component of the broader Luhri Hydroelectric Project, which is being executed in three separate phases along the Sutlej River in Himachal Pradesh.

South Korea, US, Japan to Hold Trilateral Diplomatic Talks at APEC

• South Korea, the US, and Japan will hold trilateral talks during the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Summit 2025 in South Korea.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

• APEC is a regional economic forum established in 1989 to leverage and support the growing interdependence among Asia-Pacific economies.​
• The headquarters of APEC is in Singapore.​
• It comprises 21 member economies from the Pacific Rim, including the US, China, Japan, Australia, Canada, South Korea, and others. However, India is not a member.​
• All decisions require consensus and are non-binding, and commitments are voluntary.
• APEC is home to over 2.9 billion people and accounts for over 60% of global GDP.

69^th National School Games 2025

• The 69^th National School Games 2025 (Under-17 Boys and Girls – Boxing) was inaugurated in Itanagar, marking Arunachal Pradesh’s first-ever hosting of the event.
• The 69^th National School Games (NSG) are being held across multiple cities in India, organised by the School Games Federation of India (SGFI).
• Objective: Promote sports and physical fitness among students, identify young talent, and foster national unity and harmony through sport.
• Significance: The NSG aligns with the Khelo India initiative and the Khelo Bharat Niti-2025 to revive India’s sports culture at the grassroots level.

Defence – President on Rafale

Droupadi Murmu became the first President of India to take a sortie (flight) in a Rafale fighter jet from Ambala Air Force Station in Haryana. As the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces, she reviewed the operational preparedness of the Rafale fleet.

Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS)

The Union Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister, has approved the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) rates for Rabi 2025–26 on Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers to ensure their smooth availability to farmers at affordable prices.

• The Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) is a centrally sponsored scheme under the Department of Fertilizers, which provides a fixed subsidy per kg of nutrient content (N, P, K, S) in Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, ensuring affordable access for farmers.

Launch: Introduced on 1st April 2010, replacing the earlier product-based subsidy system for non-urea fertilizers.

Implementing Organization: Administered by the Department of Fertilizers, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Government of India.

Aim:

• To make fertilizers available at reasonable prices to farmers.
• To promote balanced fertilizer use based on soil and crop requirements.
• To encourage the fertilizer industry to adopt efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and competition.

Key Features:

• Subsidy based on nutrient content: Fixed subsidy (₹/kg) for N, P, K, and S nutrients instead of per-product subsidy.
• Freedom in MRP fixation: Fertilizer companies can set Maximum Retail Prices (MRPs) reasonably, monitored by the government.
• Coverage: Applies to 28 grades of P&K fertilizers, including Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) and NPKS grades.
• Special Support: Government may announce special packages (e.g., for DAP) over and above NBS rates to stabilize prices amid global volatility.
• Urea exception: Urea remains under statutory price control, with a fixed MRP of ₹242 per 45-kg bag since March 2018.

Significance:

• Affordable Fertilizers: Ensures continuous supply of essential P&K fertilizers at subsidized prices to farmers.
• Nutrient Balance: Promotes judicious and soil-specific fertilizer use, avoiding over-reliance on nitrogenous fertilizers.
• Fiscal Efficiency: Provides transparent and predictable subsidy disbursement to fertilizer companies.

AmazonFACE

Scientists in Brazil have launched the AmazonFACE (Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment) project near Manaus, to study how the Amazon rainforest will respond to future atmospheric CO₂ levels.

• Seeks to simulate the atmosphere of the future and assess how tropical forests adapt to rising CO₂, temperature, and humidity. 
• Understand carbon uptake capacity, photosynthesis, and forest resilience with Continuous monitoring (every 10 minutes) of CO₂ absorption.

Asian Youth Games 2025

The 3^rd Asian Youth Games 2025 was held in Manama, Bahrain, with 45 countries competing in 26 sports. Veer Bhadu made history by winning India’s first-ever medal (Bronze) in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) at the Asian Youth Games.

Hurricane Melissa

Hurricane Melissa, Jamaica’s strongest-ever storm and a Category 5 hurricane, has battered the island with winds up to 185 mph (295 km/h) before turning toward Cuba’s Santiago province.

• Hurricane Melissa is a powerful tropical cyclone that formed over the Caribbean Sea and became the strongest hurricane ever recorded in Jamaica’s history, surpassing previous major storms like Hurricane Gilbert (1988).
• It originated as a tropical depression over the eastern Caribbean, gradually strengthening due to unusually warm ocean waters and favorable atmospheric conditions, evolving into a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale.
• Formation Process:
• Trigger: Low-pressure disturbance developed over the central Caribbean Sea.
• Intensification: Warm sea surface temperatures and high humidity fueled rapid intensification.
• Trajectory: Moved westward across Jamaica, then curved northeast toward Cuba and the Bahamas.
• Impact: Winds up to 185 mph, extensive flooding, agricultural loss, infrastructure damage, and displacement of over 1.5 million people in Jamaica.

Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale:

• The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (SSHWS) is a 1–5 rating system used to classify hurricanes based on their maximum sustained wind speeds. It estimates potential property damage and impact severity, though it does not account for rainfall or storm surge.
• Categories and Features:
• Category 1 (74–95 mph): Causes minor roof and tree damage; localized power outages for a few days.
• Category 2 (96–110 mph): Major roof and siding damage; widespread power failures lasting several days to weeks.
• Category 3 (111–129 mph) – Major Hurricane: Devastating structural damage; electricity and water unavailable for days to weeks.
• Category 4 (130–156 mph) – Major Hurricane: Catastrophic damage with severe structural failures; areas uninhabitable for weeks.
• Category 5 (≥157 mph) – Major Hurricane: Near-total destruction of homes; long-term power and water outages; mass displacement.