PLFS & ASUSE 2025: Mapping India's Labour Market

The National Statistics Office (NSO) released PLFS 2025 (Labour Market Dynamics in Million-plus Cities) and ASUSE 2025 (Urban Unincorporated Enterprise Landscape), providing the first comprehensive assessment of employment and informal enterprises across 46 million-plus cities.

The Surveys

»     Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

»     Conducted by NSO under MoSPI since 2017.

»     Provides annual and quarterly estimates of:

»     Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

»     Worker Population Ratio (WPR)

»     Unemployment Rate (UR)

»     Uses Usual Status (US) and Current Weekly Status (CWS) for employment estimation.

»     Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises (ASUSE)

»     Conducted by NSO.

»     Covers unincorporated non-agricultural enterprises (excluding construction).

»     Measures employment, enterprises, Gross Value Added (GVA), productivity, wages and ownership patterns across manufacturing, trade and services.

Key Findings

»     PLFS 2025

»     LFPR: 52.4% in million-plus cities (higher than other urban areas).

»     WPR: 49.8%.

»     UR: 4.9%, continuing the declining trend since 2017-18.

»     Female WPR increased from 17.9% (2017-18) to 25.5% (2025).

»     58.5% workers employed in regular salaried jobs, while casual labour constituted only 6.3%.

»     Million-plus cities recorded lower NEET (Not in Employment, Education or Training) youth and relatively higher working hours.

ASUSE 2025

»     39 lakh informal enterprises employing 1.98 crore workers.

»     Contribute 13% of India's informal enterprises, 16% of informal employment and 21% of GVA of the unincorporated sector.

»     Greater Hyderabad recorded the highest informal employment, while Kolkata had the largest number of enterprises.

»     Women account for 26% of the informal workforce.

o   Pimpri-Chinchwad, Greater Hyderabad and Delhi recorded the highest the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship; US deployed the USS Enterprise task force in the Bay of Bengal in support of Pakistan.

o   productivity, while Jaipur reported the highest annual emoluments.

Significance

»     Indicates improving urban labour market conditions and gradual employment formalisation.

»     Highlights the continuing importance of informal enterprises in employment generation and urban economic growth.

»     Reflects rising female labour force participation and declining urban unemployment.

»     Provides an evidence base for employment policy, MSME development, skill development and Viksit Bharat.

Challenges & Way Forward

»     Large informal workforce with limited social security and formal finance.

»     Wide inter-city disparities in productivity, wages and female participation.

»     Need for greater employment quality alongside employment growth.

Way Forward

»     Strengthen MSMEs and informal enterprises.

»     Expand social security and formal credit access.

»     Promote women's labour force participation through skilling and supportive infrastructure.

»     Use PLFS and ASUSE data for evidence-based urban planning, labour reforms and employment generation.

Q. Consider the following statements regarding PLFS and ASUSE:

1.    PLFS is conducted by the National Statistics Office under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

2.    ASUSE covers unincorporated non-agricultural enterprises excluding construction.

3.    Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) refers only to the employed population.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b)

"The findings of PLFS and ASUSE 2025 reflect both the progress and persistent structural challenges of India's urban labour market." Discuss.

Immunity Boosters: What Does the Science Really Say?

A recent analysis argues that the rapidly growing "immunity booster" industry lacks strong scientific evidence. It highlights that vaccines, healthy lifestyles, and evidence-based medicine remain the only proven ways to maintain a healthy immune system, while many supplements offer misleading claims and may even pose health risks.

Why are "Immunity Boosters" Criticised?

»     Market products such as vitamin pills, herbal supplements, teas, powders and tonics claim to "boost immunity" without robust scientific evidence.

»     The immune system cannot simply be strengthened like a muscle; it functions through a delicate balance of multiple biological processes.

»     Excessive immune activation can be harmful, leading to allergies, autoimmune diseases and cytokine storms.

»     Common supplements such as Vitamin C, Zinc and Vitamin D have limited or no proven benefit in preventing common infections among healthy individuals.

»     Many herbal and dietary supplements are poorly regulated, with risks of contamination, incorrect labelling and adverse effects.

»     Cases of supplement-induced liver injury have risen significantly, accounting for nearly 20% of cases in the U.S. drug-induced liver injury registry, compared to 7% in 2005.

Understanding the Human Immune System

»     The immune system consists of two complementary defence mechanisms:

»     Innate Immune System (First Line of Defence) Provides immediate, non-specific protection.

Includes:

»        Skin and mucous membranes Stomach acid and protective enzymes Phagocytes (macrophages)

»        Natural Killer (NK) cells

»     Adaptive Immune System (Specific Defence) Develops pathogen-specific immunity and long-term    immune memory.

Comprises:

»     B lymphocytes (B cells): Produce antibodies.

»     T lymphocytes (T cells): Destroy infected cells and regulate immune responses.

»     Forms the scientific basis of vaccination.

Role of Vaccines

»     Vaccines safely expose the immune system to pathogen antigens, enabling it to develop memory cells and protective antibodies without causing disease.

»     They remain the most effective and scientifically validated method of preventing infectious diseases.

»     Vaccination has enabled:

Eradication of Smallpox.

»     Massive reduction in Polio, Measles, Diphtheria and several other infectious diseases.

»     Declining vaccination rates increase the risk of resurgence of vaccine-preventable diseases.

Way Forward

»     Strengthen regulation and scientific scrutiny of dietary and herbal supplements.

»     Promote evidence-based public health communication against misleading health claims.

Encourage healthy lifestyles through:

»     Balanced nutrition

»     Regular physical activity

»     Adequate sleep

»     Avoidance of tobacco and excessive alcohol

»     Timely vaccination

»     Improve public awareness about the functioning of the immune system and rational use of supplements.

"The growing market for 'immunity boosters' reflects the increasing commercialisation of healthcare. Discuss why evidence-based public health interventions, particularly vaccination and healthy lifestyles, are more effective than unregulated supplements in promoting immune health

Inshore Ecosystems and India's Fisheries: A Growing Concern

»     The Government of India, citing Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) data, reported that 91.1% of 135 marine fish stocks assessed in 2022 are sustainable. However, experts argue that the real crisis lies in the degradation of India's inshore ecosystems, mechanised Union Government directed to take down  apps associated with Battery Management System (BMS) over reports of misuse to remotely switch off some e-rickshaws. 

»     trawling and weak fisheries governance rather than fish stock numbers alone.

Why are India's Marine Fisheries Under Stress?

»     FAO states that India's marine fisheries have reached a plateau, with most major fish stocks already fully exploited.

»     CMFRI primarily relies on landing data (fish catch) to estimate stock status, whereas internationally accepted stock assessment methods directly estimate fish populations in the sea.

»     Catch-based assessment may not accurately reflect the health of marine ecosystems.

Major Causes of the Fisheries Crisis

»     Degradation of inshore benthic ecosystems (coastal seabed), the most productive marine habitats.

»     Expansion of mechanised trawling, which destroys seabed habitats and juvenile fish breeding grounds.

»     Pollution from industries, agriculture and urban settlements.

»     Mangrove destruction, reducing natural nursery grounds for fish.

»     River dams, restricting nutrient flow into coastal waters.

»     Open access to fisheries leading to excessive fishing effort and overcrowding of mechanised vessels.

Mechanised Trawling: The Core Challenge

»     India has over 64,000 mechanised fishing vessels, with increasing fishing capacity through engine upgrades.

»     Bottom trawling continuously disturbs the seabed, damaging benthic biodiversity and fish breeding habitats.

»     Creates livelihood conflicts with traditional small-scale fishers.

»     Although trawling is prohibited within 5 nautical miles of the coast, enforcement remains weak due to inadequate surveillance and limited stakeholder participation.

Significance

»     Healthy inshore ecosystems are essential for sustaining fish populations and coastal livelihoods.

»     Fisheries support food security, exports, employment and the Blue Economy.

»     Poor coastal ecosystem management also affects neighbouring countries, as seen in the Palk Bay fisheries dispute between India and Sri Lanka.

»     Sustainable fisheries are integral to SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and India's Blue Economy strategy.

Challenges

»     Weak monitoring and enforcement of fisheries regulations.

»     Overdependence on mechanised trawling.

»     Limited participation of fishing communities in resource management.

»     Government emphasis on deep-sea fishing, despite FAO's view that it can provide only marginal additional output.

»     Lack of ecosystem-based assessment of marine resources.

Way Forward

»     Shift from catch-based assessment to scientific stock assessment and ecosystem monitoring.

»     Restore mangroves, estuaries and coastal benthic ecosystems.

»     Strict regulation and monitoring of mechanised trawling.

»     Promote community-based fisheries management by involving traditional fishers.

»     Strengthen Centre-State coordination for sustainable marine fisheries governance.

UPSC Mains Question (15 Marks)

"Sustainable fisheries depend not only on fish stock management but also on the health of coastal ecosystems and effective governance." Discuss in the context of India's marine fisheries.

ISRO's SOLVE Test: A Milestone for Gaganyaan

ISRO successfully conducted the first ground test of the Solid motor-based Sub-Orbital Launch Vehicle for Experiments (SOLVE) at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. SOLVE will validate the Crew Module's deceleration and recovery system for the Gaganyaan Mission.

What is SOLVE?

»     SOLVE (Sub-Orbital Launch Vehicle for Experiments) is a dedicated test platform developed for Gaganyaan test missions.

»     Carries the Crew Module to an altitude of 10–17 km to validate:

»     Crew module separation

»     Deceleration sequence

Parachute deployment

»     Splashdown and recovery operations

»     Uses a modified PSLV strap-on solid motor with:

»     Slow burn-rate propellant

Straight nozzle

»     Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control (SITVC) for improved flight control.

Significance of the SOLVE Test

»     Validates one of the critical safety systems of the Gaganyaan mission.

»     Ensures reliable deployment of the 10-parachute recovery system before sea splashdown.

»     Provides ISRO with a flexible and cost-effective platform for conducting multiple crew module recovery experiments under different flight conditions.

»     Reduces mission risk before crewed flights.

Gaganyaan Mission

»     India's first indigenous human spaceflight programme.

»     Objective: Send 2–3 astronauts into Low Earth Orbit (≈400 km) for about 3 days and ensure their safe return.

»     Launch vehicle: Human-rated LVM3 (HLVM3).

»     Mission follows a phased approach involving multiple uncrewed test flights before the first crewed mission.

Recent Developments

»     Successful Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT-02) for Crew Module recovery.

»     Mission MITRA behavioural study conducted in Leh to understand astronaut adaptation under extreme conditions.

»     Successful SOLVE ground test marks another milestone towards human-rating critical systems.

Significance

»     Strengthens India's human spaceflight capability.

»     Demonstrates indigenous expertise in crew safety, re-entry and recovery technologies.

»     Supports future ambitions such as the Bharatiya Antariksh Station and deep-space exploration.

»     Enhances India's position among nations possessing independent human spaceflight capability.

Challenges

»     Human spaceflight demands extremely high reliability and safety standards.

»     Integration of life-support, Crew Escape System and recovery technologies remains technologically complex.

»     Mission timelines depend on successful completion of successive uncrewed validation flights.

Way Forward

»     Complete all Gaganyaan uncrewed test missions and safety validations.

»     Continue testing of Crew Module, Crew Escape System and recovery technologies.

»     Strengthen indigenous capabilities in human-rated launch systems and space medicine.

»     Leverage Gaganyaan experience for future space station and lunar missions.

Q. With reference to the Gaganyaan Mission, consider the following statements:

1.    SOLVE is designed to validate the Crew Module's deceleration and parachute recovery system.

2.    SOLVE uses a modified PSLV strap-on solid motor.

3.    Gaganyaan aims to place astronauts in Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO).

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a)

India's Gaganyaan Mission marks a significant step towards achieving indigenous human spaceflight capability. Discuss the technological challenges, strategic significance and the role of missions such as SOLVE in ensuring astronaut safety.

Fuel Security Improves as LNG Deliveries Return to Normal

»     The Union Government has withdrawn most provisions of the Natural Gas (Supply Regulation) Order, 2026, following the normalisation of LNG shipments through the Strait of Hormuz.

»     The Order was notified under the Essential Commodities Act (ECA), 1955, to ensure uninterrupted natural gas supply during emergency situations after the US–Israel strike on Iran disrupted energy supplies from West Asia.

»     The disruption prompted some suppliers to invoke Force Majeure, leading the Government to prioritise natural gas allocation to essential sectors. Other emergency measures, including maximising LPG production and restricting bulk diesel sales, have also been withdrawn.

»     The Strait of Hormuz is India's most critical energy chokepoint, making developments in West Asia crucial for India's energy security.

»     Force Majeure: A contractual provision allowing temporary suspension of contractual obligations due to extraordinary events such as war, natural disasters or geopolitical disruptions.

Essential Commodities Act (ECA), 1955

»     Objective: Ensure the availability of essential commodities at fair prices by preventing hoarding, black marketing, artificial shortages and profiteering, while empowering the Government to intervene during emergencies.

Government Powers:

»     Regulate production, supply, distribution and trade

»     Impose stock limits and regulate storage

»     Prioritise allocation of essential commodities

Benefits:

»     Prevents hoarding & artificial price rise

»     Ensures availability during crises

»     Stabilises markets and protects consumers

Concerns:

»     Discourages private investment in storage & logistics

»     Frequent intervention creates market uncertainty

»     Stock limits may depress farm-gate prices during bumper harvest

The Case for a Second Home for India's Asiatic Lions

»     The Asiatic lion population increased to 891 (2025 Census), but the species remains largely confined to the Greater Gir Landscape (Gujarat), making it vulnerable to a single catastrophic event.

»     In 2013, the Supreme Court directed the translocation of Asiatic lions to Kuno National Park (Madhya Pradesh) to establish a second free-ranging population, but the order remains unimplemented due to Gujarat's resistance.

»     The 2018 Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) outbreak in Gir highlighted the risks of maintaining the entire population in a single landscape.

»     Since the 1980s, the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has recommended creating a geographically separate population, while Project Lion (2020) aims to expand suitable lion habitats for long-term conservation.

Issue

»     Single-site concentration

»     Delay in Kuno translocation

»     Metapopulation approach

»     Kuno National Park

»     Barda Wildlife Sanctuary

Significance

»     Vulnerable to epidemics, droughts, wildfires and other disasters

»     Supreme Court directive remains unimplemented

»     Establishing multiple geographically separated populations reduces extinction risk

»     Habitat restored, villages relocated and prey base improved, but lion translocation is yet to begin

»     Alternative site within Gujarat, but offers limited geographical risk diversification

Celebrating Five Years of India's Ministry of Cooperation

»     Union Home & Cooperation Minister Amit Shah launched several initiatives marking five years of the Ministry of Cooperation.

»     Established on 6 July 2021, the Ministry works with the vision of "Sahkar se Samriddhi" (Prosperity through Cooperation) to strengthen the cooperative movement through greater cooperation between the Centre and States.

Initiative

»     White Revolution 2.0

»     Grain Storage Plan

»     Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs)

»     Credit Access

»     Dairy Cooperatives

Key Features

»     Targets 50% increase in milk procurement over the next five years; 25,282 Dairy Cooperative Societies (DCSs) registered across 31 States/UTs; aims to expand cooperative coverage, generate employment and empower women.

»     Foundation stone laid for 47 grain storage godowns to strengthen agricultural storage infrastructure.

»     Launch of Core Banking Platform and Sahakar Sahyogi (AI-powered conversational platform); UCBs can open branches without prior RBI approval, provide doorstep banking, and offer higher-value housing loans.

»     Cooperative banks brought under CGTMSE, enabling collateral-free credit guarantees for Micro & Small Enterprises (MSEs).

»     Formation of Sardar Patel Cooperative Dairy Federation Ltd. (SPCDF) to integrate 20 lakh+ dairy farmers; new multi-State cooperatives established for dairy inputs and manure management.

Cooperative Sector Reforms

»     Institution/Reform

»     Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS)

»     e-PACS

»     Centre–State Cooperation

Significance

»     Being transformed into multi-purpose rural institutions to strengthen grassroots cooperatives.

»     50,000 PACS being digitised to improve transparency, efficiency and service delivery.

»     Core implementation strategy for expanding the cooperative movement across the country

Ethanol's Role in India's Green Mobility Transition

»     Toyota Kirloskar Motor described ethanol as the fastest and most cost-effective pathway for decarbonising India's road transport.

»     It advocated a technology-neutral approach, supporting Electric Vehicles (EVs), Hybrid Vehicles, Flex-Fuel Vehicles (FFVs), Compressed Biogas (CBG) and Hydrogen, considering India's diverse energy requirements.

India's ethanol programme supports:

»     Reduced fossil fuel consumption

»     Lower carbon emissions

»     Energy security by reducing crude oil imports

»     Higher farmer incomes through demand for agricultural feedstocks.

Aspect

»     E10 → E20 Transition

»     E25 & Higher Blends

»     Flex-Fuel Vehicles (FFVs)

»     Brazil's Experience

Key Facts

»     Negligible material impact on vehicles; 3–5% reduction in fuel efficiency.

»     Requires comprehensive testing of both new and existing vehicles before large-scale adoption.

»     Can operate on petrol, ethanol, or their blends, requiring supportive policies to improve consumer adoption.

»     Large-scale success achieved through strong policy support for FFVs and ethanol fuel.

Key milestones and current status (as of july 2026)

India has achieved significant progress, surpassed initial targets and setting ambitious future goals.

»     E20 Achievement: India officially achieved its target of 20% ethanol blending in petrol (E20) by December 2025, five years ahead of the original 2030 schedule.

»     National Standard: E20 fuel (80% petrol, 20% ethanol) is now the standard fuel available nationwide.

»     Future Roadmap: Following E20 success, the government is moving towards higher blends.

»     Flex-Fuel Vehicles: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) released a draft notification in April 2026 to recognize flex-fuel vehicles capable of running on E85 (85% ethanol) and E100 (pure ethanol).

»     E85 Rollout: Initiated in June 2026 at select retail outlets, with plans to scale to 500 stations by end of 2026 and 5,000 stations by end of 2027.

»     Long-term Targets: Projections indicate aggregate ethanol blending levels could reach nearly 26% by 2030-31 with the adoption of higher blends and flex-fuel technology.

The Growing Threat to India's Marine Resources

»     The Government, citing Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) data, stated that 91.1% of 135 assessed marine fish stocks (2022) are biologically sustainable.

»     However, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) maintains that India's marine fisheries have plateaued, with most major fish stocks being fully exploited and affected by overcapacity.

»     The difference arises because CMFRI primarily uses fish landing data, whereas FAO and many countries rely on stock assessments conducted at sea, considered a more reliable measure of fish abundance.

Major Concerns

»     Inshore ecosystem degradation

»     Mechanised trawling

»     Overexploited fish stocks

»     Weak regulation

»     Livelihood concerns

Significance

»     Loss of benthic habitats due to dam construction, mangrove destruction and industrial, agricultural & urban pollution.

»     Over 64,000 trawlers continuously disturb the seabed, reducing marine biodiversity and damaging fish breeding grounds.

»     FAO considers most commercially important stocks fully exploited, limiting future production growth.

»     The 5 Nautical Mile (NM) ban on mechanised fishing is poorly enforced due to inadequate coastal patrolling and limited fisher participation.

Resource depletion has intensified conflicts between mechanised and traditional fishers, including in the Palk Bay region.

Fisheries Management in India

»     India's narrow continental shelf (except along parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra) makes inshore waters the most productive fishing grounds.

»     Introduced in the 1960s, mechanised trawling expanded rapidly with limited restrictions on vessel numbers or capacity.

»     The Government's emphasis on deep-sea fishing is viewed cautiously, as the FAO estimates only limited additional potential from offshore resources compared to better management of inshore fisheries.

»     Effective fisheries management requires scientific stock assessments, stronger regulation of fishing effort and greater participation of local fishing communities in resource management.