India’s E-Waste Recycling Challenges and Opportunities

While the Union government actively promotes local electronics manufacturing through initiatives such as semiconductor fabrication plants and the Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme, the area of e-waste recycling remains a significant challenge. In recent years, millions of tonnes of discarded consumer electronics and household appliances have accumulated, posing serious environmental and health concerns. Policymakers increasingly recognize recycling as a critical process to recover scarce and valuable metals, especially given the projected surge in electronics consumption in the near future.

Understanding E-Waste

·       E-waste encompasses discarded electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, televisions, refrigerators, and chargers. Although these items often contain precious materials, they are frequently discarded improperly rather than being reused or recycled, contributing to environmental degradation and resource wastage.

·       The mismanagement of e-waste carries severe health and environmental risks. E-waste contains toxic substances including lead, mercury, and cadmium, which can contaminate soil and water if handled improperly. Such contamination has been linked to serious health problems such as neurological disorders, kidney failure, and chronic illnesses. Environmentally, hazardous recycling methods pollute air, soil, and water resources, while also releasing greenhouse gases that exacerbate climate change and damage ecosystems.

·       Beyond the health and environmental impact, ineffective recycling leads to a substantial economic loss. Valuable metals such as gold, silver, and copper end up wasted rather than being recovered and reused in manufacturing processes, representing missed opportunities for resource efficiency and economic gain.

·       Effective e-waste management aligns closely with global sustainability agendas, particularly Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12, which promotes responsible consumption and production, and SDG 13, focused on climate action. Strengthening e-waste recycling mechanisms supports India’s commitments toward Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) standards by embedding resource efficiency and environmental protection into the country’s economic growth strategies.

Electronics Consumption and the Indigenous Manufacturing Push

Despite India having over 939 million mobile broadband connections, the country accounts for only about 4% of global electronics consumption. Fragile global supply chains, highlighted by recent disruptions, have pushed the government to ramp up domestic manufacturing and secure raw material access. A notable step in this direction is the ₹1,500 crore mineral recycling scheme announced in September, aimed at promoting circularity in resource use.

E-Waste Generation and Processing Trends

·       According to the Global E-Waste Monitor 2020, India ranks as the world’s third-largest generator of e-waste after China and the United States. With India’s electronics market among the fastest growing globally, this upward trend in e-waste generation is expected to intensify. A recent report projects the electronics industry in India to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16.6%, expanding from USD 215 billion in fiscal year 2019 to USD 540 billion by 2025. This rapid growth will inevitably result in a significant increase in e-waste volumes.

·       In 2022 alone, India produced an estimated 4.17 million metric tonnes of e-waste. However, only about one-third of this was processed through formal and environmentally compliant recycling channels, underscoring the gaps in current handling mechanisms.

Legal and Regulatory Framework for E-Waste

·       Improper disposal of end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) carries severe negative externalities including risks to human health and environmental degradation. To address these challenges, India enforces the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, issued by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), which came into effect on April 1, 2023.

·       State Pollution Control Boards are tasked with maintaining inventories of e-waste, but inconsistent methodologies across states cause discrepancies in data when compared with international standards. Meanwhile, the Central Pollution Control Board has intensified oversight by auditing recycling firms, inspecting over 50 companies in recent months. Efforts are underway to formalize the fragmented informal recycling sector by aggregating operations into structured “mandi”-style streams, improving the recovery of metals such as gold, copper, aluminum, and steel.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework and Challenges

·       The government has implemented Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) rules that mandate manufacturers to collect and recycle end-of-life appliances, focusing on recovering metals like copper, aluminum, nickel, cobalt, and lithium. This initiative is partially motivated by geopolitical risks, including China’s export restrictions on rare earth elements, which have underscored the need for India to secure its raw material supplies domestically.

·       However, the recycling ecosystem remains dominated by the informal sector, as highlighted by a 2023 report from the Indian Cellular and Electronics Association. Informal operators primarily engage in component repair and harvesting but operate outside formal regulatory frameworks, which impedes the establishment of a truly circular economy. Even within the formal EPR system, practices such as “paper trading,” where recyclers inflate reported volumes to gain financial incentives, continue to pose significant challenges.

Concerns Regarding Traceability and Best Practices

Experts emphasize that the e-waste sector in India suffers from widespread malpractices, with many recyclers lacking genuine metal extraction capabilities. There is a strong call for rigorous third-party audits, enhanced environmental safeguards, and comprehensive life-cycle tracking of electronic products. Unlike Western countries, where products are accounted for as potential e-waste from the point of sale, India’s inventorying practices remain weak, hindering effective waste management.

Future Potential of E-Waste Recycling in India

Although the current contribution of recycled precious metals to India’s supply chains remains minimal, industry leaders argue that with appropriate policy support, India could satisfy up to 70% of its rare earth material requirements through recycling within 18 months. The role of recycling is growing annually, underscoring its potential as a foundational pillar in India’s electronics ecosystem and its broader industrial strategy.

EV Charging Infrastructure – Government Introduces 100% Subsidy

·       The government has recently unveiled guidelines under the Rs. 10,000 crore PM E-Drive scheme, which provides a 100% subsidy for the development of electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure. This initiative is a critical step toward accelerating India’s shift to clean and sustainable mobility by addressing the longstanding issue of insufficient charging facilities.

·       India has set forth ambitious objectives to transition its transportation sector toward sustainability, with electric vehicles occupying a central role in this vision of clean mobility. A significant barrier to this transition has been the lack of adequate infrastructure for EV charging. To bridge this gap, the government has launched guidelines under the Rs. 10,000 crore PM E-Drive scheme, which offers up to a full subsidy for establishing EV charging stations as well as battery swapping stations. This move is intended to boost the adoption of EVs by directly tackling the infrastructural shortcomings that have hindered the sector’s growth.

India’s Drive for EV Adoption

·       Over the last decade, India’s EV market has gathered momentum, bolstered by supportive policies such as the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme and various incentives at the state level. Despite this progress, the country still faces a severe deficit in charging infrastructure. Presently, India has fewer than 20,000 public charging stations, a figure that pales in comparison to the numbers in global EV frontrunners like China and the United States.

·       The PM E-Drive scheme targets this bottleneck by prioritizing subsidies specifically for high-density urban centers, designated smart cities, and key transport corridors. By linking subsidy disbursements to aggregated demand, the scheme fosters a coordinated effort among central ministries, state governments, and public sector enterprises, ensuring a more strategic and efficient deployment of charging infrastructure.

Key Features of the PM E-Drive Subsidy Scheme

·       Within the larger Rs. 10,000 crore budget, Rs. 2,000 crore has been earmarked exclusively for EV charging infrastructure development. The guidelines highlight several important aspects:

·       The scheme offers 100% financial support to eligible participants for upstream infrastructure components such as transformers, cables, circuit breakers, and civil works. In select cases, subsidies may even extend to the cost of EV supply equipment (EVSE), including charging guns.

·       Geographically, the focus is on cities with populations exceeding one million, notified smart cities, satellite towns adjacent to metropolitan areas, and cities included in the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). Furthermore, the scheme plans to make certain inter-city and inter-state highways EV-ready, working closely with the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways to integrate charging facilities along these critical routes.

·       Eligible entities for submitting proposals include central ministries, state governments, public sector undertakings (PSUs), and central public sector enterprises (CPSEs). Major companies such as IOCL, BPCL, HPCL, NHAI, AAI, and metro rail corporations are also invited to participate. To ensure operational flexibility, these entities may either manage charging stations themselves or appoint dedicated Charge Point Operators (CPOs).

Expected Impact on the EV Ecosystem

·       This subsidy scheme is designed to facilitate the creation of a robust network of charging stations that keeps pace with the growing adoption of electric vehicles in India. One of the immediate outcomes anticipated is a significant boost to EV sales, as the assurance of widespread and accessible charging infrastructure is likely to encourage more consumers to transition away from internal combustion engine vehicles.

·       The involvement of major public sector players such as IOCL and NHAI ensures that the scheme will benefit from the expansive networks and operational expertise these entities bring, enhancing the chances of successful implementation. By prioritizing cities under the National Clean Air Programme and capital cities, the infrastructure expansion aligns closely with India’s broader environmental objectives, particularly the goal of reducing urban air pollution.

·       In addition to environmental benefits, the expansion of charging networks will generate new economic opportunities for a variety of stakeholders, including Charge Point Operators, manufacturers of charging equipment, and ancillary service providers.

Challenges Ahead

·       Despite the promising nature of this subsidy scheme, several challenges must be addressed to ensure its success. One of the foremost issues is land acquisition, as finding and securing appropriate sites for charging stations in densely populated urban environments remains difficult.

·       Another critical challenge lies in grid readiness. India’s power distribution infrastructure will need to be strengthened to handle the increased electrical load from widespread EV charging without causing disruptions or blackouts.

·       Moreover, it is vital to promote private sector participation to complement the efforts led by public sector undertakings. A balanced rollout between public and private players will likely accelerate infrastructure growth.

·       Finally, raising consumer awareness is essential. Users need to be well-informed about where charging stations are located, how pricing models work, and the relevant safety standards associated with EV charging.

India Secures Second Deep-Sea Mineral Exploration Contract in the Indian Ocean

·       India has recently inked a new contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) that grants it exclusive rights to explore Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS) in the Carlsberg Ridge region of the Indian Ocean. This achievement makes India the first country globally to hold two ISA contracts simultaneously, thereby controlling the largest seabed area internationally allocated for PMS exploration. The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) based in Goa is scheduled to commence exploration activities in 2026, employing geophysical and hydrographic surveys to investigate the site.

·       The application for this contract, submitted in 2024, was approved just last week, granting India rights over a 10,000 square kilometer area along the Carlsberg Ridge. This new contract complements India’s initial agreement secured in 2016 for exploration in the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges, representing both a significant scientific milestone and a strategic advantage for the country.

Polymetallic Sulphides and Their Strategic Importance for India

·       Polymetallic Sulphides are valuable seabed deposits that contain a variety of metals such as copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, along with trace quantities of rare and precious elements. These deposits are typically found near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, where seawater infiltrates cracks in the Earth''s crust, interacts with magma, and resurfaces as mineral-laden hot water, which then solidifies on the seabed. For India, exploring these PMS deposits holds critical importance due to the limited availability of such minerals in terrestrial reserves.

·       Securing PMS resources is vital to India’s strategic industries, including those involved in renewable energy, high technology, and green technologies. By tapping into these underwater mineral deposits, India aims to enhance its resource security and reduce dependency on external supplies, thereby fostering greater self-reliance.

India’s Experience and Expertise in PMS Exploration

·       Since signing its first contract with the ISA in 2016, India’s NCPOR has conducted extensive surveys along the central and southwest Indian Ocean ridges, steadily building expertise and developing the necessary infrastructure. The government’s Deep Ocean Mission has further bolstered these efforts by providing advanced deep-sea vessels and cutting-edge technology such as Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs).

·       In addition, the upcoming Matsya submersible, part of the Samudrayaan mission, is expected to significantly expand India’s deep-sea exploration capabilities. NCPOR’s approach follows a systematic three-phase plan: initial reconnaissance surveys using ship-mounted tools to locate promising PMS sites; detailed near-seabed investigations employing AUVs and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) to confirm the presence of deposits; and comprehensive resource evaluation of identified sites to assess their economic viability.

The Significance of the Carlsberg Ridge

·       The Carlsberg Ridge is a segment of the mid-ocean ridge system in the Indian Ocean, created approximately 40 million years ago through seafloor spreading between the Indian Plate and the Somali Plate. Characterized by a relatively slow spreading rate of 2.4 to 3.3 centimeters per year, the ridge features rugged terrain with a median valley typical of slow-spreading ridges. Its hydrothermal vent systems make the Carlsberg Ridge a prime location for Polymetallic Sulphide deposits.

·       India has studied this ridge and its hydrothermal systems for over three decades. Strategically, the Carlsberg Ridge is located near 2°N latitude, much closer to India than the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges, which lie near 26°S. This proximity enhances its importance for both resource security and scientific exploration efforts.

Complexity of PMS Exploration Compared to Other Underwater Mineral Searches

·       Exploration of Polymetallic Sulphides is considerably more challenging than other underwater mineral investigations. PMS deposits are found near hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges at depths ranging between 2,000 and 5,000 meters, in environments that are rocky, uneven, and remote. Survey operations require deep-sea vessels equipped with dynamic positioning systems, precise navigation, and advanced communication capabilities.

·       Unlike other seabed mining explorations, PMS investigations demand a multidisciplinary team that includes marine geologists, geophysicists, oceanographers, biologists, and deep-sea technology specialists. The exploration process involves ship-mounted geophysical surveys for initial reconnaissance and the use of AUVs and ROVs for detailed seabed mapping and sample collection. Highly sophisticated instruments are essential to analyze mineral composition accurately, making PMS exploration one of the most technically demanding deep-sea missions globally.

How the International Seabed Authority Allocates Exploration Sites

·       The International Seabed Authority, established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), governs mineral exploration activities in international waters. Countries apply through their governments or authorized entities for exploration rights. These applications must include a detailed description of the proposed area, a comprehensive work plan, baseline environmental studies, and evidence of technical and financial capabilities.

·       The ISA’s Legal and Technical Commission (LTC) reviews the applications for compliance. Upon approval, the application is forwarded to the ISA Council for final endorsement, after which exclusive exploration rights in the designated seabed area are granted to the applicant.

India’s Future Plans for Mineral Exploration in the Indian Ocean

·       As part of its broader Blue Economy initiatives, India is actively pursuing additional seabed mineral exploration rights within the Indian Ocean. Beyond its current contracts for Polymetallic Sulphides, India has submitted an application to the ISA seeking rights to explore cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount located in the Central Indian Ocean. This application is presently under review.

·       Securing such exploration rights would further enhance India’s access to critical minerals essential for technological development, renewable energy infrastructure, and long-term resource security, reinforcing the country’s strategic positioning in the region.

Crime in India 2023: NCRB Report Highlights Surge in Cybercrime

The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) has released the Crime in India 2023 report after a two-year hiatus, revealing a sharp increase in cybercrime cases across the country. The report underscores growing vulnerabilities within India’s digital infrastructure, with fraud, extortion, and sexual exploitation emerging as the primary motives behind these cyber offenses.

Key Findings from the Report

·       The overall crime statistics for 2023 indicate a 7.2% rise in recorded crimes, totaling approximately 6.24 million cases. On average, this translates to one crime being recorded every five seconds. While there has been a decline in certain traditional violent crimes, such as murder (down 2.8%) and rape (down 5.9%), other categories have seen notable increases. Economic offenses and cybercrime cases have surged, alongside miscellaneous crimes such as obstruction on public ways under Section 283 of the IPC, which increased by 62%, and violations of the Motor Vehicle Act, which more than doubled with a 103% rise.

·       Crimes targeting vulnerable populations paint a concerning picture as well. Incidents against women rose marginally by 0.7%, totaling 448,211 cases. Crimes against Scheduled Castes (SCs) increased slightly by 0.4%, reaching 57,789 cases, while crimes against children witnessed a sharper rise of 9.2%. The most significant increase was observed in crimes against Scheduled Tribes (STs), which jumped by 28.8%.

Trends in Cybercrime

·       Cybercrime cases surged dramatically by 31.2% in 2023, reaching 86,420 incidents compared to 65,893 in 2022. Correspondingly, the cybercrime rate increased from 4.8% to 6.2% during the same period. This rise follows a consistent upward trajectory observed since 2018, when the NCRB reported 27,248 cases. The numbers grew steadily each year, with 44,735 in 2019, 50,035 in 2020, 52,974 in 2021, and 65,893 in 2022.

·       Examining the motives behind cybercrime, fraud dominates, accounting for 68.9% of the total cases (59,526 incidents), making it the largest category. Sexual exploitation-related offenses comprised 4.9% (4,199 cases), while extortion accounted for 3.8% (3,326 cases).

State-Wise Distribution of Cybercrime

Karnataka reported the highest number of cybercrime cases in 2023, with 21,889 incidents, reflecting a steep increase from 8,136 cases in 2021 and 12,556 in 2022. Within Karnataka’s cases, 18,166 were identified as cheating by personation, and 1,007 involved the transfer of obscene videos. Telangana followed with 18,236 cases in 2023, up from 15,297 in the previous year. Uttar Pradesh registered 10,794 cybercrime cases in 2023, marking a slight increase from 10,117 in 2022.

Economic Offenses

Economic crimes continued to rise steadily, with a total of 204,973 cases reported in 2023, representing a 6% increase from 193,385 cases in 2022. This broad category includes forgery, cheating, and fraud (FCF), which alone accounted for 181,553 cases. Other notable subcategories include criminal breach of trust with 22,759 cases and counterfeiting at 661 cases.

Analysis and Implications

·       The NCRB report reveals a shifting pattern in India’s crime landscape, moving away from traditional violent offenses toward economic and technology-driven crimes. This transformation is also reflected in changes to crime categorization and monitoring, as 2023 marked the final annual report under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) before the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) came into effect in July 2024.

·       Digital fraud emerges as the most pressing challenge within the cybercrime domain. The concentration of cases in states like Karnataka, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh suggests that rapid urbanization, the proliferation of information technology, and increased digital adoption are significant contributing factors.

·       The consistent rise in economic offenses highlights the urgent need for enhanced financial cybersecurity frameworks to safeguard economic interests and maintain public trust.

The Way Forward

·       To address these evolving challenges, it is critical to strengthen India’s cybersecurity infrastructure and promote widespread digital literacy programs. Law enforcement agencies must be equipped with advanced cyber forensic tools and receive specialized training to investigate and prosecute cyber offenses effectively.

·       Enhancing public-private partnerships will also be vital for efficient monitoring, prevention, and swift response to cyber threats. A collaborative, multi-stakeholder approach involving the government, judiciary, technology companies, and citizens is essential to mitigate risks and foster a robust, resilient digital ecosystem in India.

Trump’s Gaza Peace Plan

The Prime Minister of India recently welcomed Donald Trump’s 20-point peace proposal for Gaza, describing it as a potential pathway toward lasting peace in West Asia. The plan, which has garnered backing from Arab nations as well as Western leaders, focuses on achieving an immediate ceasefire, facilitating the release of hostages, and enabling the reconstruction of Gaza.

Overview of Trump’s Gaza Peace Plan

This proposal is a diplomatic framework aimed at ending the ongoing Israel–Hamas conflict that has persisted from 2023 to 2025. It emphasizes ceasefire, disarmament, and rebuilding efforts. Central to the plan is the vision of transforming Gaza into a “New Gaza,” a special economic zone that would be internationally supervised until significant governance reforms take place within the Palestinian administration.

Core Components of the Plan

·       The plan outlines several key measures to stabilize the region. First, it calls for an immediate ceasefire where Israel would halt military actions as soon as Hamas agrees, effectively freezing battle lines to ensure stability. Secondly, it proposes a hostage and prisoner exchange where Hamas is expected to release all hostages, alive or deceased, within 72 hours, while Israel would release over 2,000 Palestinian detainees.

·       Importantly, the plan guarantees that there will be no forced displacement of Palestinians from Gaza, thereby safeguarding demographic and human rights. Hamas is explicitly excluded from any role in future governance. However, members of Hamas who choose to disarm would be granted amnesty or safe passage abroad.

·       To oversee Gaza’s governance and reconstruction, the plan proposes the establishment of a “Board of Peace,” an international body led by Donald Trump and Tony Blair. Additionally, an international stabilization force involving multiple countries, including Arab states, would maintain peace and assist in training Palestinian police forces.

·       The economic revival of Gaza is envisioned through the creation of a special economic zone, aimed at attracting preferential trade and channeling aid for reconstruction. The plan also links conditional Palestinian statehood to reforms within the Palestinian Authority (PA) and the assurance of security guarantees, offering a “political horizon” for eventual sovereignty.

Positive Aspects of the Proposal

·       The ceasefire mechanism offers immediate relief by halting ongoing violence and preventing further civilian casualties and destruction. Addressing the release of hostages first is a critical humanitarian step that could build trust among the parties involved. The plan’s endorsement by Arab nations, the European Union, and India lends it significant multilateral credibility.

·       The focus on reconstruction prioritizes the rebuilding of homes, infrastructure, and the economy in Gaza, which has suffered extensive damage. International oversight by monitors is intended to reduce mistrust between Israel and Palestine, promoting greater accountability and transparency throughout the process.

Challenges Facing the Plan

·       One of the primary obstacles is securing Hamas’s acceptance of the plan, as radical elements within the group may refuse to disarm or relinquish political power. Israel remains skeptical, concerned about potential security gaps and questioning the Palestinian Authority’s capacity to govern effectively.

·       The practicalities of implementing the plan—such as coordinating prisoner exchanges, distributing aid fairly, and ensuring adherence to a ceasefire—are complex and prone to difficulties. Additionally, deep political divisions between Hamas and the Palestinian Authority threaten to derail any unified governance arrangement.

·       The ambiguity surrounding the timeline and conditions for Palestinian statehood may also lead to long-term dissatisfaction and unrest, as the plan stops short of providing a clear path to sovereignty.

The Way Forward

·       For the peace plan to succeed, broad consensus-building is essential. The United States, United Nations, and Arab countries must collectively exert pressure on both Israel and Palestinian factions to fulfill their commitments. Enhanced oversight by UN agencies and Arab monitors is necessary to guarantee transparency in aid delivery and monitor ceasefire compliance.

·       Strengthening the Palestinian Authority through inclusive reforms and the involvement of civil society will be crucial in establishing legitimate governance. Furthermore, Gaza’s redevelopment must be integrated with progress toward a viable two-state solution, ensuring that the peace efforts contribute to a durable resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Conclusion

Trump’s Gaza peace plan represents a rare diplomatic opportunity amid ongoing turmoil but remains fragile without the cooperation of Hamas and security assurances from Israel. For it to lead to lasting peace, the plan must evolve into a just and balanced framework that combines humanitarian relief, reconstruction, and political reform. Only such an approach offers a sustainable path forward for peace and stability in West Asia.

South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC)

Context

On September 12, 2025, designated as the United Nations Day for South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC), renewed calls were made to reform and enhance this cooperation framework as a critical mechanism for achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.

Understanding South-South and Triangular Cooperation

·       South-South Cooperation (SSC) refers to the collaboration among developing countries aimed at sharing knowledge, skills, technologies, and resources to promote mutual growth and development. Triangular Cooperation (TrC), on the other hand, involves partnerships where developing countries collaborate with the support of developed nations or multilateral organizations. It is important to recognize SSTC as a complement to traditional North-South cooperation, not as a replacement.

·       The origins of SSTC trace back to the Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA) established in 1978, which formalized the framework for South-South Cooperation. The United Nations commemorates this legacy by observing September 12 as the International Day for SSTC, marking the anniversary of BAPA.

·       The fundamental objectives of SSTC include fostering self-reliance and collective resilience among developing countries. It aims to enhance their capacity to develop solutions that are context-specific and locally relevant. SSTC also promotes principles of mutual benefit, solidarity, and equality within the realm of development cooperation.

Core Functions of SSTC:

·       SSTC plays several vital roles, such as capacity-building, knowledge exchange, and technology transfer. These efforts enable developing nations to enhance their skills, adopt best practices, and gain access to affordable technologies to address local development challenges. Additionally, SSTC strengthens the collective voice of the Global South in international governance, boosting their influence in shaping global policies and institutions.

·       Furthermore, SSTC encourages both regional and interregional collaboration, motivating countries to pool resources and work together to confront shared challenges like climate change, health emergencies, and trade barriers. Serving as an alternative to conventional aid, SSTC provides mutual support without imposing conditionalities, thereby reinforcing resilience and self-sufficiency.

Significance of SSTC:

·       The impact of SSTC on development is profound, as it promotes low-cost, innovative, and scalable models directly aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It fosters solidarity within the Global South by encouraging collective ownership and reducing dependency on developed countries, empowering Southern nations to lead in designing solutions.

·       SSTC also enhances resilience by offering practical approaches to pressing issues such as food security, disaster preparedness, climate adaptation, and strengthening public health systems. Importantly, it promotes equity by counteracting the unequal conditions often tied to traditional aid, ensuring fairness, sovereignty, and respect for domestic development priorities.

India’s Contribution to SSTC:

·       India’s approach to SSTC is deeply rooted in the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam—the idea of the world as one family—emphasizing solidarity and inclusiveness in global cooperation. The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program has been pivotal, training professionals from over 160 countries and enhancing capacities in governance, information technology, agriculture, and health sectors.

·       Since 2017, the India-UN Development Partnership Fund has supported more than 75 projects across 56 developing countries, focusing particularly on Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and small island developing states. India has also demonstrated digital diplomacy by exporting innovations such as Aadhaar (unique ID system), Unified Payments Interface (UPI), and other digital governance platforms, providing scalable solutions globally.

·       India’s active participation in the Voice of the Global South Summits and the African Union’s engagement in the G20 has amplified the concerns of Southern nations while advocating for Africa’s greater inclusion in global decision-making. Furthermore, India’s partnership with the World Food Programme (WFP) has pioneered innovations like Grain ATMs, fortified rice, and optimized ration distribution, positioning India as a development model for other emerging economies.

Challenges Facing SSTC:

·       Despite its promise, SSTC faces significant obstacles. Funding constraints, caused by shrinking humanitarian and development budgets, limit the scope and scalability of projects. Many developing countries grapple with capacity gaps, lacking the necessary infrastructure, institutional frameworks, or skilled manpower to fully absorb and implement innovations.

·       Another challenge is the lack of a common global framework, which hinders effective monitoring, evaluation, and accountability of SSTC initiatives. Additionally, geopolitical pressures, including persistent North-South power imbalances and the politicization of aid, undermine the neutrality and effectiveness of SSTC. Practical difficulties in adapting successful local projects to diverse regional contexts also restrict replication and broader impact.

The Way Forward:

·       Looking ahead, there is a need to broaden the focus of SSTC to include emerging sectors such as the digital economy, artificial intelligence regulation, and climate finance. Strengthening institutional frameworks through dedicated SSTC platforms and secretariats can facilitate better knowledge exchange and project coordination.

·       To address funding challenges, innovative financing mechanisms should be explored, including mobilizing resources from the private sector, diaspora bonds, and pooled funds from Southern countries themselves. Triangular Cooperation remains crucial, where developed nations and multilateral agencies provide expertise and support while ensuring that developing countries maintain leadership roles.

·       Finally, establishing transparent, SDG-aligned monitoring and reporting systems is essential to improve accountability and track progress more effectively.

Conclusion:

South-South and Triangular Cooperation has evolved from a mere diplomatic concept to a vital development lifeline for billions worldwide. India’s leadership role offers a unique opportunity to shape fair and inclusive global partnerships. With strengthened institutions and innovation-driven approaches, SSTC can become a foundational pillar in realizing the ambitions of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.

Preponderance of Probability

·       The decision in the case concerning the ownership of 1,500 square yards in Ayodhya was based on the “test of preponderance of probabilities”, as explained by former Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud. This principle was applied to determine who held possession of the inner and outer courtyards of the disputed site.

·       This is a well-recognized standard of proof used in civil litigation. The concept revolves around the likelihood of one event or fact being more probable than another. A fact is considered proven if the available evidence shows that its occurrence is more likely than not. The emphasis is not on establishing absolute certainty or removing every doubt, but rather on assessing which party presents a more convincing and probable account.

·       In civil legal proceedings, the party bearing the burden of proof must establish that their version of events appears more plausible when compared to the opposing narrative. This civil law threshold differs significantly from the “beyond a reasonable doubt” standard used in criminal trials, where the prosecution must meet a much higher burden of proof to establish the guilt of the accused.

·       The Supreme Court of India, in the landmark case of Narayan Ganesh Dastane v. Sucheta Narayan Dastane (1975), clarified that under Section 3 of the Indian Evidence Act, a fact is considered proved when the court believes in its existence on the basis of the preponderance of probability. The judicial process involves evaluating conflicting scenarios and adopting the one that appears most probable.

·       This standard of proof is primarily employed in civil matters, including disputes concerning contracts, property rights, torts, and other civil claims. The claimant must demonstrate that their assertions are more likely true than not. For instance, in a contractual dispute involving breach of contract, it must be shown that it is more probable than not that the breach occurred.

Ophiorrhiza echinata: A New Coffee Plant Species

·       A newly discovered coffee plant species named Ophiorrhiza echinata has recently been identified in the Western Ghats, highlighting the region’s immense biodiversity.

·       This species was found specifically in the shola forests of Devikulam, located in Kerala’s Idukki District. It inhabits the ecotone zone where evergreen forests transition into grasslands, thriving at an altitude of approximately 1,630 metres above sea level. The plant is believed to possess medicinal potential.

·       Classified under the Rubiaceae family, Ophiorrhiza echinata is closely allied with Ophiorrhiza mungos, a species known for its medicinal applications, particularly in cancer therapy and as an antidote. So far, this species has been found only at its type locality, occupying less than four square kilometres, with an observed population of just 35 individual plants.

Swachh Shehar Jodi Initiative

·       The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has recently launched the Swachh Shehar Jodi (SSJ) initiative to enhance urban sanitation practices under the Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban (SBM-U).

·       This initiative establishes a mentorship framework involving 72 high-performing cities (mentors) and approximately 200 low-performing cities (mentees). The mentor cities have been selected based on their outstanding performance in the Swachh Survekshan rankings. The goal is to promote knowledge-sharing, peer learning, and replication of successful sanitation and waste management models across urban centres.

Objectives

The initiative is intended to assist low-ranking cities by drawing on the expertise and best practices of top performers, thereby enabling them to:

• Implement effective waste management systems
• Improve overall cleanliness standards
• Foster sustainable urban sanitation solutions

Implementation Criteria

Mentor cities are selected based on the following:

• Those ranked 1st, 2nd, or 3rd in Swachh Survekshan (SS) 2022, 2023, and 2024
• Top three cities across different population brackets in SS 2024
• Promising clean cities emerging from each State/UT in SS 2024

Mentee cities are chosen using these criteria:

• Listed among the bottom ranks in State-level cumulative SS rankings
• Geographical proximity to the corresponding mentor city

Funding Support

Mentor and mentee cities can utilize Capacity Building (CB) Funds allocated to States/UTs under SBM-U 2.0. Additionally, States/UTs are encouraged to provide supplementary funding as needed. Funds from external sources or partner organizations may also be leveraged to support implementation.

Pallid Fish Eagle: Rare Nesting in Corbett Tiger Reserve

·       A recent survey conducted by the State Forest Department in collaboration with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has documented the rare nesting of the Pallid Fish Eagle in the Corbett Tiger Reserve.

·       Also known as Pallas’s Sea Eagle or Band-tailed Fish Eagle, it is a large bird of prey characterized by its brownish plumage. The eagle is typically found around lakes, marshes, and rivers, and it is known to breed in tall trees near water bodies. Its diet primarily consists of fish, although other prey are occasionally consumed. The bird is partially migratory, with populations from Central Asia moving to parts of South Asia, including India, during winter.

·       The species is distributed across the east Palearctic region, including countries such as Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, China, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, the Pallid Fish Eagle faces threats due to habitat degradation, pollution, and overfishing.

·       Located in Uttarakhand, the Corbett Tiger Reserve was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, making it the first national park in India and the first under Project Tiger. The reserve features an undulating terrain comprising valleys through which the Ramganga, Pallaen, and Sonanadi rivers flow. Its vegetation consists of tropical moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, sal forests, and riparian ecosystems, spread across the Bhabar and lower Shivalik ranges.

Red Sanders Conservation

·       In a recent initiative, the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has allocated ₹82 lakh to the Andhra Pradesh Biodiversity Board to support conservation efforts for the endangered and endemic species Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus).

·       Native to the southern portion of the Eastern Ghats, Red Sanders is primarily found in the districts of Anantapur, Chittoor, Kadapa, and Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh. This species thrives in rocky, degraded, and fallow lands characterized by red soil and a hot, dry climate.

·       Red Sanders faces significant threats due to its high commercial value, which has led to widespread illegal harvesting and smuggling.

Conservation Status

• IUCN Red List: Endangered
• CITES: Appendix II
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule IV

National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

Established under the Biological Diversity Act of 2002 and operational since 2003, the NBA is a statutory body headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Its primary role is to oversee the implementation of biodiversity laws across the country. To facilitate decentralized biodiversity governance, the NBA works in coordination with:

• State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs): Regulate access to biological resources at the state level.
• Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs): Function at the village or panchayat level to encourage local biodiversity conservation and documentation.

The NBA is led by a Chairperson with extensive experience in biodiversity conservation, supported by ten ex-officio government representatives and five non-official members selected for their expertise in biodiversity-related fields.

Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai (HTHH) Volcano

·       A multidisciplinary research team recently completed an extensive 54-day expedition aboard the CSIRO research vessel Investigator, focusing on the aftermath of the catastrophic 2022 eruption of Tonga''s Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai (HTHH) submarine volcano.

·       Located within the Tongan archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean, HTHH is a submarine stratovolcano. It comprises two small islands—Hunga Tonga and Hunga Ha’apai—and a series of shallow reefs that outline the caldera rim of a significantly larger underwater volcanic structure. This edifice lies to the west of Tonga’s main inhabited islands and approximately 30 km south of Fonuafoʻou and 65 km north of Tongatapu, the country’s principal island.

·       HTHH forms a part of the highly active Tonga–Kermadec Islands volcanic arc, a prominent subduction zone that stretches from New Zealand to Fiji. This arc was formed by the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate and has exhibited consistent volcanic activity over recent decades.

·       A particularly powerful eruption occurred on January 15, 2022, making it one of the most significant volcanic events of the 21st century. This eruption propelled volcanic gases and ash into the stratosphere, triggered atmospheric shock waves, and generated tsunami waves that traveled across multiple ocean basins.

·       Stratovolcanoes, also known as composite volcanoes, are characterized by their tall, steep, and conical structure, contrasting with the broader, flatter form of shield volcanoes. These volcanoes are typically situated above subduction zones and are often key features of volcanically active regions like the Pacific Ring of Fire.

·       Comprising nearly 60% of Earth’s individual volcanoes, stratovolcanoes primarily erupt andesite and dacite—lava types that are cooler and more viscous than basalt. This high viscosity allows pressure from trapped gases to accumulate, often resulting in explosive eruptions. Stratovolcanoes are typically composed of alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, with many featuring small summit craters that may hold water, ice, or even volcanic domes during dormant periods.

Antlions: Newly Discovered Species

·       Two new species of antlions—Indophanes keralaensis and Indophanes sahyadriensis—have been discovered by researchers, enriching the biodiversity records of India. Both species belong to the family Myrmeleontidae under the order Neuroptera.

·       With a global distribution of around 2,000 species, antlions are predatory insects named for the behavior of their larvae, which construct conical pits in sandy soils to trap ants and other small prey.

·       Although adult antlions—sometimes referred to as antlion lacewings—resemble dragonflies or damselflies, they are nocturnal and relatively short-lived compared to their larval stage.

Habitat and Characteristics

·       Antlions are typically found in warm tropical regions, though some species adapt to colder climates. They prefer dry, sandy environments that allow larvae to dig effective traps. Some species, however, lay in wait under leaf litter instead of burrowing.

·       Larvae have stout bodies with sickle-shaped mandibles and can vary in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters. In North America, these larvae are commonly known as "doodlebugs" due to the winding trails they leave in the sand.

·       The larval stage can last from one to two years, and after pupation, it takes about a month to complete development. Antlions are ecologically beneficial and harmless to humans, plants, and infrastructure, as they prey on pest insects.

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR)

·       Indian Immunologicals (IIL) has recently introduced India’s first indigenous gE-deleted DIVA marker vaccine against Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR), a significant step in controlling this cattle disease.

·       IBR is an endemic disease in India caused by the Bovine Herpes Virus (BoHV-1), part of the Varicellovirus genus under the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily. It affects both domestic and wild cattle and manifests in three forms: respiratory, genital, and encephalitic, with the first two being more prevalent.

·       The virus is primarily transmitted through aerosol droplets and via semen, especially from infected bulls. It adversely impacts bovine productivity by causing infertility, abortions, and a decrease in milk yield. There is currently no specific treatment or vaccine available in India, making prevention and early diagnosis critical.

·       Clinical signs include upper respiratory issues such as purulent nasal discharge, reddening of the muzzle (red nose disease), conjunctivitis, fever, depression, anorexia, and reduced milk output. Abortions are also commonly observed in affected cattle.

National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)

·       The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) has reported a 28.8% increase in crimes against Scheduled Tribes (STs) in 2023 compared to the previous year.

·       The NCRB was set up in 1986 under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) to function as a central repository of crime-related data. Its creation was based on the recommendations of the Tandon Committee, National Police Commission (1977–1981), and the Task Force of the Home Ministry. Headquartered in New Delhi, the Bureau''s primary role is to collect, analyze, and disseminate crime statistics across the country.

Key Responsibilities

• Manage the Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and System (CCTNS)
• Operate the National Digital Police Portal, enabling both police and citizens to access crime-related services
• Maintain the National Database of Sexual Offenders (NDSO) and share updates with States/UTs
• Serve as the nodal agency for the Online Cyber-Crime Reporting Portal, allowing the public to report crimes like child pornography and rape
• Operate CyTrain, a digital platform for cybercrime investigation training
• Oversee the Central Finger Print Bureau, the national fingerprint repository

In addition to these functions, the NCRB is responsible for publishing comprehensive crime-related reports such as Crime in India, Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India, and Prison Statistics India.

Gulf of Aden and Maritime Security

A recent incident involving a suspected missile attack—believed to have been launched by Yemen’s Houthi rebels—ignited a fire aboard a vessel in the Gulf of Aden, raising fresh concerns about maritime security in this strategically vital region.

Geography and Importance of the Gulf of Aden

·       The Gulf of Aden is a key extension of the Indian Ocean, nestled between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa. It connects the Red Sea with the Arabian Sea through the Bab el-Mandeb Strait. Named after the port city of Aden in Yemen, it spans an area of about 410,000 square kilometers, stretching roughly 900 km in length and 500 km in width.

·       Geographically, the gulf is bordered by Somalia and the Socotra Islands to the south, Yemen to the north, Djibouti to the west, and the Arabian Sea to the east. It connects to the Somali Sea via the Guardafui Channel and narrows into the Gulf of Tadjoura near Djibouti.

·       The Sheba Ridge, an extension of the Indian Ocean ridge system, runs along the gulf’s floor and plays a vital role in shaping its seabed. The region is influenced by seasonal upwelling driven by the southwest and northeast monsoons, resulting in nutrient-rich, cooler waters.

·       Compared to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden has lower salinity. The region is home to diverse marine life, including coral reefs, seabirds, and various invertebrate species. Major ports include Aden (Yemen), and Berbera and Bosaso (Somalia). Cities such as Mukalla, Balhaf, Ahnwar, Bosaso, and Djibouti City are located along its coast.

·       This gulf is a key conduit for global shipping—particularly oil—forming part of the Suez Canal route. Nearly 11% of the world’s seaborne petroleum cargoes traverse this waterway, linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean.

The Wassenaar Arrangement: Reform Demands in the Digital Age

·       Amid growing concerns over unchecked digital surveillance and cyber technologies, the Wassenaar Arrangement is facing pressure to evolve its framework to effectively regulate emerging digital threats and cloud-based services.

·       Established in 1996 in Wassenaar, Netherlands, the Wassenaar Arrangement is a voluntary multilateral export control regime focused on conventional arms and dual-use technologies. It replaced the Cold War-era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom) and is headquartered in Vienna, Austria.

Membership and Objectives

The arrangement currently includes 42 participating states, such as the US, UK, France, Russia, Germany, Japan, India, South Africa, Mexico, and South Korea. It aims to:

• Promote transparency and accountability in the export of arms and sensitive technologies.
• Prevent the diversion of such items to terrorists or rogue regimes.
• Balance national security with the promotion of legitimate trade and technological advancement.

Key Features

• Two control lists: Dual-Use Goods & Technologies and the Munitions List.
• Semi-annual information exchange on transfer approvals and denials.
• Consensus-based decision-making, with significant national discretion.
• In 2013, the scope was expanded to include cyber-surveillance and intrusion software.

India’s Role

India joined the Wassenaar Arrangement in 2017 and integrated its control lists into the SCOMET framework (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment and Technologies).

Current Challenges

The arrangement’s framework, designed for the physical export era of the 1990s, struggles to address the complexities of cloud computing, SaaS platforms, AI-driven surveillance tools, and other digital technologies. These gaps have created regulatory loopholes that undermine global non-proliferation efforts and call for urgent modernization of the export control system.

The National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS)

·       India’s inaugural National Security Strategy (NSS) is currently in its final drafting stage and is anticipated to be completed by December 2025. The strategy aims to consolidate various aspects of national security, including defence, cyber resilience, and internal stability. The task of formulating this comprehensive document is being undertaken by the National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS).

·       The National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS) functions as the secretariat to the National Security Council (NSC)—India’s apex advisory body responsible for addressing internal and external security challenges. The NSCS serves as the core strategic planning agency for all matters concerning national security.

·       The NSCS was established in the late 1990s, following recommendations made during post-Kargil conflict security assessments. It is headed by the National Security Advisor (NSA), who holds the rank of a Cabinet Minister. The NSA simultaneously serves as the Secretary of the NSC and the Chief of the NSCS.

·       The primary mandate of the NSCS is to formulate strategic direction, coordinate inter-agency efforts, and articulate a long-term vision for India''s national security preparedness. It plays a pivotal role in aligning the actions of various ministries and security agencies under a unified national security doctrine.

Organizational Structure

The NSCS consists of a diverse team of senior security experts and administrative officials:

• Three Deputy National Security Advisors (NSAs), representing the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), Indian Police Service (IPS), and the Armed Forces.
• A Military Adviser, who acts as a liaison with the Ministry of Defence and oversees the induction of new technologies into the armed forces.
• A National Maritime Security Coordinator (NMSC), responsible for coordination with coastal states, the Indian Coast Guard, and other maritime security entities.
• An Additional NSA (ANSA), a newly activated position created to enhance operational efficiency within the NSCS.

Functions and Strategic Role

The NSCS plays a central role in India’s national security infrastructure through a range of critical functions:

• Drafting and periodically updating the National Security Strategy and related policy doctrines.
• Providing expert advice to the NSC on matters including internal security, external threats, cybersecurity, economic security, and hybrid warfare.
• Facilitating the integration of intelligence, defence, and diplomatic inputs into cohesive national strategies.
• Holding administrative authority to access Cabinet papers, generate Cabinet notes, and actively participate in policy formulation processes.

As the nerve centre of India’s strategic decision-making ecosystem, the NSCS ensures that the country’s national security framework remains agile, forward-looking, and capable of responding to evolving threats.

Venezuela: Geopolitical Flashpoint

·       Tensions are escalating in northern South America as the President of Venezuela prepares to declare a state of emergency in response to perceived U.S. "aggression." This follows the destruction of suspected Venezuelan drug trafficking boats by American forces and the deployment of U.S. warships in the vicinity of the Venezuelan coast.

·       Venezuela is located at the northern tip of South America, occupying a vast triangular landmass that is larger in area than the combined size of France and Germany. Its capital is Caracas.

Bordering Nations and Bodies of Water

Venezuela shares its borders with:

• Colombia to the west,
• Brazil to the south,
• Guyana to the east,
• And opens to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and northeast.

Physiographic Features

The country is marked by a highly diverse landscape that includes:

• The Andes Mountains, home to Pico Bolívar (4,978 meters), Venezuela’s highest peak.
• The expansive Orinoco River Basin and Llanos grasslands, which are central to agriculture, cattle ranching, and hydropower production.
• Lake Maracaibo, the largest lake in South America, functioning as a major hub for Venezuela’s oil industry.
• The Guiana Highlands, known for rich mineral deposits and iconic natural wonders like Angel Falls, the tallest waterfall in the world at 979 meters.

Natural Resources and Economic Importance

Venezuela possesses the world’s largest proven oil reserves, forming the backbone of its economy. In addition to petroleum, it is also rich in:

• Iron ore
• Gold
• Diamonds
• Hydroelectric potential, largely untapped due to political instability.

Strategic Maritime Location

The nation enjoys an extensive Caribbean coastline and controls key islands such as Margarita, Los Roques, and La Tortuga. Its maritime territory provides Venezuela with a strategic gateway between South America and the broader Caribbean and North American regions, enhancing its geopolitical significance.