EDITORIALS & ARTICLES
6th June 2021
Black Carbon and Glacier Melting
The report titled “Glaciers of the Himalayas: Climate Change, Black Carbon and Regional Resilience” says that the glaciers are melting faster than the global average ice mass. However, the strong policy on black carbon can sharply cut glacier melt.
- The research report is released by the World Bank and covers the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush (HKHK) mountain ranges.
Black Carbon
- Black carbon is a kind of an aerosol.
- An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in the air.
- Among aerosols (such as brown carbon, sulphates), Black Carbon (BC) has been recognized as the second most important anthropogenic agent for climate change and the primary marker to understand the adverse effects caused by air pollution.
- It gets emitted from gas and diesel engines, coal-fired power plants, and other sources that burn fossil fuel. It comprises a significant portion of particulate matter or PM, which is an air pollutant.
HKHK Mountain Region:
- HKHK Region spans eight countries; Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, China, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar and also has some of the world’s tallest mountains including Mt. Everest and K2.
- HKHK Glaciers feed into river systems including Ganga, Yangtze, Irrawaddy, and Mekong.
- The water that runs down from glaciers feeds the agriculture, on which nearly 2 billion people are dependent upon.
- HKHK Region, also known as the third pole, along with China’s Tien Shan Mountains holds most ice outside the North and the South Pole.
- Black Carbon:
- BC is a short-lived pollutant that is the second-largest contributor to warming the planet behind carbon dioxide (CO2).
- Unlike other greenhouse gas emissions, BC is quickly washed out and can be eliminated from the atmosphere if emissions stop.
- Unlike historical carbon emissions it is also a localised source with greater local impact.
- Source of Black Carbon in Himalayan Region:
- Industry (primarily brick kilns) and residential burning of solid fuel together account for 45-66% of regional anthropogenic (man-made) BC deposition, followed by on-road diesel fuels (7-18%) and open burning (less than 3% in all seasons) in the region.
- Impact of Deposits of BC:
- It acts in two ways hastening the pace of glacier melt:
- By decreasing surface reflectance of sunlight.
- By raising the air temperature.
- Rate of De-glaciation:
- The rate of retreat of HKHK glaciers is estimated to be 0.3 metres per year in the west to 1.0 metre per year in the east.
- Full implementation of current policies to mitigate BC can achieve a 23% reduction but enacting new policies and incorporating them through regional cooperation among countries can achieve enhanced benefits.
- National Mission on Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) is one such policy adopted in India. It is one of the eight missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
- BC deposits can be sharply reduced through new, currently feasible policies by an additional 50% from current levels.
- Impact of Glacier Melt:
- Glacier melt produces flash floods, landslips, soil erosion, and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF).
- In the short run, the higher volumes of melt water could replace receding groundwater downstream. But in the long run, decreased water availability would aggravate water shortage.
- Measures to be Taken:
- In the Himalayas, reducing black carbon emissions from cookstoves, diesel engines, and open burning would have the greatest impact and could significantly reduce radiative forcing and help to maintain a greater portion of Himalayan glacier systems.
- Radiative forcing is a measure of the change in energy balance as a result of a change in a forcing agent (e.g., greenhouse gases, aerosol, cloud, and surface albedo) to affect the global energy balance and contribute to climate change.
- Steps to be Taken by Regional Governments:
- Review the policies on water management, with an emphasis on basin-based regulation and use of price signals (value of a particular action) for efficiency.
- Careful planning and use of hydropower to reflect changes in water flows and availability.
- Increasing the efficiency of brick kilns through proven technologies.
- There must also be greater knowledge sharing in the region.
Crops Lost to Pests
According to a recent report, as much as 40% of the world’s agricultural crops are lost to pests each year.
- The United Nations declared 2020 as the International Year of Plant Health, which has been extended until 1st July, 2021.
- Reasons for the Spread:
- Half of all emerging plant diseases are spread by global travel and trade, which have tripled in volume over the last decade.
- Weather is the second-most important factor.
- Impact of Climate Change:
- It will increase the risk of pests spreading in agricultural and forestry ecosystems, especially in cooler Arctic, boreal, temperate and subtropical regions.
- Controlling Invasive Pests:
- A single, unusually warm winter can be enough to assist the establishment of invasive pests.
- Fall armyworm pests, which feed on crops like maize, sorghum and millet and Tephritid fruit flies (that damage fruit and other crops) have already spread due to a warmer climate.
- Desert locusts (the world’s most destructive migratory pests), are expected to change their migratory routes and geographical distribution because of climate change.
- Impact of the Plant Pests:
- It leaves millions of people without enough food to eat.
- It adversely impacts agricultural activities and thereby, the primary source of income for rural poor communities.
- Invasive pests cost countries at least USD 70 billion annually and are one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss.
- Key Recommendations:
- Farmers should adopt and policymakers should encourage the use of environment-friendly methods such as integrated pest management.
- To make trade safe, it is important to implement international plant health standards and norms, such as those developed by the International Plant Protection Convention (IPCC) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
- The IPPC is a plant health treaty signed by over 180 countries including India.
- It aims to protect the world's plant resources from the spread and introduction of pests, and promote safe trade.
- There is a need for more research as well as investment in strengthening national plant health systems and structures.
- Policymakers and governments should ensure their decisions are based on sound preparation and data.
- Regularly monitoring plants and receiving early warning information about emerging threats, helps governments, agricultural officers and farmers take preventive and adaptive measures to keep plants healthy.
Pest Controlling Methods
- The most popular methods of containing the pest include the use of Genetically Modified (GM) crops and pesticides, however, some armyworms have developed resistance to these tactics and are continuing to destroy crops.
- Natural approaches, including breeding predators such as wasps, to be released into fields when necessary, as well as developing a “germ warfare” that isolates diseases to which the caterpillar (armyworm) is prone, are being explored by the scientists.
- A quarantine system, under which imports of grains and plants that can host such insects are inspected at shipping ports, airports and land border crossings is the first line of defence taken by the countries across the world.
- The quarantine system in India is governed by the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order of 2003, which is notified under the Destructive Insects and Pests Act of 1914.
- In India, quarantine responsibility lies with the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (headquartered in Faridabad, Haryana). The short staffed directorate and the lack of a strong legislation have made the task of policing borders difficult in India.
Satellite Internet
According to an estimate, 1,250 satellites will be launched annually this decade, with 70% of them for commercial purposes.
- Various private companies are aiming to deliver broadband satellite Internet around the world through their fleet of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites.
- The idea of a space internet system is not new. It is being used through Geostationary Satellite for selective users.
- Satellite Internet and LEO Technology:
- Positioning of Satellites: LEO satellites are positioned around 500km-2000km from earth, compared to stationary orbit satellites which are approximately 36,000km away.
- Latency: Latency, or the time needed for data to be sent and received, is contingent on proximity.
- As LEO satellites orbit closer to the earth, they are able to provide stronger signals and faster speeds than traditional fixed-satellite systems.
- Additionally, because signals travel faster through space than through fibre-optic cables, they also have the potential to rival if not exceed existing ground-based networks.
- Higher Investment: LEO satellites travel at a speed of 27,000 kph and complete a full circuit of the planet in 90-120 minutes.
- As a result, individual satellites can only make direct contact with a land transmitter for a short period of time thus requiring massive LEO satellite fleets and consequently, a significant capital investment.
- Due to these costs, of the three mediums of Internet – fibre, spectrum and satellite – the latter is the most expensive.
- Geostationary Satellite Internet:
- Positioning of Satellites: Geostationary orbit is located at a height of 35,786 km over the Earth’s surface, directly above the Equator.
- Most of the existing space-based Internet systems use satellites in geostationary orbit.
- Satellites in this orbit move at speeds of about 11,000 km per hour, and complete one revolution of the Earth at the same time that the earth rotates once on its axis.
- To the observer on the ground, therefore, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears stationary.
- Coverage: The signals from one geostationary satellite can cover roughly a third of the planet — and three to four satellites would be enough to cover the entire Earth.
- Easier Connectivity: As satellites appear to be stationary, it is easier to link to them.
- Latency Issues: The transmission from a satellite in geostationary orbit has a latency of about 600 milliseconds. The geostationary satellites are located at higher altitudes compared to LEO, thus the longer the distance that needs to be covered results in greater latency.
- Related Initiatives:
- ‘Five to 50’ service (OneWeb): OneWeb, a private company, has successfully launched constellations of 218 satellites in LEO.
- The company only has one more launch to complete before it obtains the capacity to enable its ‘Five to 50’ service of offering internet connectivity to all regions north of 50 degrees latitude.
- The Five to 50 service is expected to be switched on by June 2021 with global services powered by 648 satellites available in 2022.
- Starlink: It is a venture of SpaceX.
- Starlink currently has 1,385 satellites in orbit and has already started beta testing in North America and initiating pre-orders in countries like India.
- However, Starlink’s satellites fly closer to the earth and therefore, the company requires a larger fleet to provide global connectivity than OneWeb.
- Project Kuiper: It is a project of Amazon announced in 2019.
- Loon Project: Google launched its ‘Loon’ project in 2013, using high-altitude balloons to create an aerial wireless network.
- After testing the service in rural Kenya, Google’s parent company, Alphabet, abandoned the project in 2021.
- Issues in LEO Satellites Launch:
- Regulation Issues: During the days of the Sputnik and Apollo missions, governments dominated and regulated space-based activities.
- However, today, the balance of power has shifted from countries to companies.
- As a result, there are questions related to who regulates these companies, especially given the large number of nations that contribute to individual projects.
- It makes the regulatory framework complicated.
- Logistic Challenge: There are logistical challenges with launching thousands of satellites into space as well.
- Difficulty in Space Observation: Satellites can sometimes be seen in the night skies which creates difficulties for astronomers as the satellites reflect sunlight to earth, leaving streaks across images.
- Interruptions: Satellites travelling at a lower orbit can also interrupt the frequency of those orbiting above them.
- Space Junk: There are already almost 1 million objects larger than 1cm in diameter in orbit, a byproduct of decades of space activities.
- Those objects, colloquially referred to as ‘space junk,’ have the potential to damage spacecraft or collide with other satellites.
Devika River Project: J&K
Recently, the Minister of State for Development of North Eastern Region has asked for suggestions for the Devika River project in Udhampur, J&K.
- This project is compared with the Namami Gange Project.
- This is a Rs. 190 crore Project.
- The work on the project was started in March 2019 under the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP).
- Under the project, bathing “ghats” (places) on the banks of the Devika River will be developed, encroachments will be removed, natural water bodies will be restored and catchment areas will be developed along with cremation ground.
- The project includes the construction of three sewage treatment plants, sewerage network of 129.27 km, development of two cremation ghats, protection fencing and landscaping, small hydropower plants and three solar power plants.
- On completion of the project, the rivers will see reduction in pollution and improvement in water quality.
- Devika River:
- Devika river originates from the hilly Suddha Mahadev temple in Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir and flows down towards western Punjab (now in Pakistan) where it merges with the Ravi river.
- The river holds religious significance as it is revered by Hindus as the sister of river Ganga.
- In June 2020, Devika Bridge was inaugurated in Udhampur. Apart from taking care of traffic congestion, the Devika Bridge was also meant to help smooth passage of Army convoys and vehicles.
National River Conservation Plan
- National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) is a centrally funded scheme launched in 1995 aimed at preventing the pollution of rivers.
- Programs for river conservation are being implemented under National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) and NGRBA (National Ganga River Basin Authority).
- Activities under NRCP:
- Interception and Diversion works to capture the raw sewage flowing into the river through open drains and divert them for treatment.
- Sewage Treatment Plants for treating the diverted sewage.
- Low Cost Sanitation works to prevent open defecation on riverbanks.
- Electric Crematoria and Improved Wood Crematoria to conserve the use of wood and help in ensuring proper cremation of bodies brought to the burning ghats.
- River Front Development works such as improvement of bathing ghats.
- Public awareness and public participation.
- Human Resource Development (HRD), capacity building, training and research in the area of River Conservation.
- Other miscellaneous works depend upon location specific conditions including the interface with human population.
China Relaxes Two Child Policy: Lessons for India
Recently, China relaxed its two child policy and announced it will now allow three children per married couple.
- It also announced that it would increase the retirement age by a few months every year. For the past four decades, the retirement age in China has been 60 for men and 55 for women.
- China’s Population Policies:
- One Child Policy:
- China embarked upon its one-child policy in 1980, when its government was concerned that the country’s growing population, which at the time was approaching one billion, would impede economic progress.
- Chinese authorities have long hailed the policy as a success, claiming that it helped the country avert severe food and water shortages by preventing up to 40 crore people from being born.
- It was a source of discontent, as the state used brutal tactics such as forced abortions and sterilisations.
- It also met criticism and remained controversial for violating human rights, and for being unfair to the poor.
- Two Child Policy:
- From 2016, the Chinese government finally allowed two children per couple– a policy change that did little to arrest the rapid fall in population growth.
- Three Child Policy:
- It was announced after China’s 2020 census data showed that the country’s rate of population growth is falling rapidly despite the 2016 relaxation.
- The country’s fertility rate has dropped to 1.3, far below the replacement level of 2.1 required for a generation to have enough children to replace it.
- The United Nations expects China’s population to begin declining after 2030, but some experts say this could happen as early as in the next one or two years.
- Concerns of Falling Population:
- Decreased Labour:
- When the young population in a country declines, it creates labour shortages, which have a major detrimental impact on the economy.
- Increased Social Spending:
- More older people also means that demands for healthcare and pensions can soar, burdening the country’s social spending system further when fewer people are working and contributing to it.
- Critical for Developing Nations:
- A problem unique to China, though, is that unlike the other developed countries part of this trend, it is still a middle-income society, despite being the world’s second-largest economy.
- Prosperous countries like Japan and Germany, which face similar demographic challenges, can depend on investments in factories, technology and foreign assets.
- China, however, still depends on labour-intensive manufacturing and farming.
- A drop in demographic dividend could thus hurt China and other developing nations like India more than those in the rich world.
- Lessons For India:
- Avoid Stringent Measures:
- Stringent population control measures have landed China in a human crisis that was inevitable. If coercive measures like a two-child limit are enforced, India’s situation could be worse.
- Women Empowerment:
- The proven ways to lower the fertility rate are to give women the control over their fertility and ensure their greater empowerment through increased access to education, economic opportunities and healthcare.
- As a matter of fact, China’s fertility reduction is only partly attributable to coercive policies, and is largely because of the sustained investments the country had made in education, health and job opportunities for women.
- Need to Stabilize Population:
- India has done very well with its family planning measures and now it is at replacement level fertility of 2.1, which is desirable.
- It needs to sustain population stabilisation because in some States like Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Kerala and Karnataka, the total fertility rate is way below replacement level, which means it can experience in 30-40 years what China is experiencing now.
India’s Case
- India’s Population Growth:
- India’s population is estimated to be over 1.36 billion as of March 2021, indicating an estimated 12.4% growth over the last decade.
- That is lower than the 17.7% between 2001 and 2011.
- However, a 2019 United Nations report had projected India to overtake China as the most populous country by 2027.
- India is expected to add nearly 273 million people between 2019 and 2050.
- Indian Measures for Population Control:
- Prime Minister’s Appeal: During his Independence Day Speech in 2019, the Prime Minister appealed to the country that population control was a form of patriotism.
- Mission Parivar Vikas: The Government launched Mission Parivar Vikas in 2017 for substantially increasing access to contraceptives and family planning services in 146 high fertility districts.
- Compensation Scheme for Sterilization Acceptors: Under the scheme, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare provides compensation for loss of wages to the beneficiary and also to the service provider (& team) for conducting sterilizations from the year 2014.
- National Family Planning Indemnity Scheme (NFPIS) : This scheme was launched in the year 2005. Under this scheme, clients are insured in the eventualities of death, complication and failure following sterilization.
Section 51 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005
Recently, the former Chief Secretary of West Bengal was served a show cause notice by the Home Ministry under Section 51 of the Disaster Management (DM) Act, 2005.
- Show Cause Notice:
- The notice was issued for failing to comply with the Centre’s directions to attend the review meeting on Cyclone Yaas chaired by the Prime Minister in Bengal’s Kalaikunda.
- The Act is violative of Section 51 (b) of the DM Act, 2005.
- Though the DoPT (Department of Personnel and Training) is the cadre-controlling authority of Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officers, the show cause notice was served under provisions of the DM Act, which is under the purview of the Home Ministry.
- Section 51 (b) of the DM Act:
- The section prescribes “punishment for obstruction” for refusal to comply with any direction given by or on behalf of the Central government or the State government or the National Executive Committee or the State Executive Committee or the District Authority under the Act.
- Anyone refusing to comply with orders is liable for punishment with imprisonment up to one year, or fine, or both. In case this refusal leads to death of people, the person liable shall be punished with imprisonment up to two years.
- Section 51 of the Act has two important reservations.
- Under the Act, the action on the part of the person has to be ‘without reasonable cause’ and ‘failure of an officer to perform the duty without due permission or lawful excuse’.
- Previous Use of Provisions of DM Act:
- In April 2020, the Home Ministry made spitting in public a punishable offence. The guidelines issued by the Ministry under the DM Act, which are binding on the states, also made “wearing of face masks in public places mandatory.”
- In March 2020, when thousands of migrants gathered at Anand Vihar railway station in Delhi due to the sudden announcement of the countrywide lockdown, two Delhi government officers were served show cause notice by the Centre under the DM Act for dereliction of duty.
- DM Act:
- The DM Act was passed by the government of India in 2005 for the efficient management of disasters and other matters connected to it. However it came into force in January 2006.
- It was invoked for the first time in the country in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic in the year 2020.
- The Centre, through the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) headed by the Prime Minister, invoked the provisions of the Act to streamline the management of the pandemic, empowering District Magistrates to take decisions and centralise other decisions on supply of oxygen and movement of vehicles.
- Main Features of DM Act 2005:
- Nodal Agency:
- The Act designates the Ministry of Home Affairs as the nodal ministry for steering the overall national disaster management.
- Institutional Structure: It puts into place a systematic structure of institutions at the national, state and district levels.
- Finance:
- It contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as the creation of funds for emergency response, National Disaster Response Fund and similar funds at the state and district levels.
- Civil and Criminal Liabilities:
- The Act also devotes several sections to various civil and criminal liabilities resulting from violation of provisions of the Act.
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