What is the controversy over the historic Durgadi Fort?

• The legal battle to stake a claim over the Durgadi fort began in the early 1970s, when the Maharashtra government asserted its ownership.
• In February 1974, Maharashtra handed the land over to the Kalyan Municipal Corporation, a decision that was challenged by the Muslim side in 1976
• The ongoing dispute over Durgadi Fort in Maharashtra’s Kalyan highlights the complex interplay of history, religion, and politics in the region.
• It’s not merely a local issue but reflects broader themes of communal tensions, political mobilization, and legal battles over religious sites.

Historical Background :

Origins and Development:

• Built in the 16th century during the Adil Shahi Sultanate, the fort served as a strategic trading post.
• Historically, it included a mosque, an eidgah (prayer wall), and other Islamic structures.
• After capturing Kalyan in 1760, the Marathas constructed a Durgadevi temple and converted the mosque into a temple dedicated to Lord Ram. The fort was renamed Durgadi Killa.
• Under British control post-1818, the fort’s religious significance waned, with the Durgadevi temple ceasing to function as a place of worship by 1876.

1960s Communal Tensions:

• Local Muslims claimed a historical right to offer Eid prayers at the fort, asserting ownership over the land.
• Hindus questioned these claims, leading to disputes over access and control.
• In 1966, the Maharashtra government asserted its ownership and planned to convert part of the site into a public park.
• Protests from the Muslim community led to a compromise, allowing Eid prayers twice a year, while maintaining government control.
• In 1968, Bal Thackeray and the Shiv Sena leveraged the dispute to promote Hindu revivalism, installing a saffron flag and advocating for the site as a Hindu religious space.
• The site became a political and religious rallying point, particularly during Navratri celebrations.

Legal Battle (1970s–2023)

• The Muslim community, represented by the Majlis-e-Mushawarat Trust, argued continuous possession and historical significance.
• The Maharashtra government asserted legal ownership, supported by its uninterrupted control since the 1960s.
• In 2023, a Kalyan Civil Court ruled in favor of the state government, citing the Limitation Act.
• The court rejected the Muslim community’s claim as their legal petition was filed in 1976, nine years after their possession was disrupted in 1968.
• The Muslim side plans to appeal, arguing that the ruling ignored evidence of historical possession and focused solely on procedural grounds.

Key Implications :

• The fort serves as a flashpoint for Hindu-Muslim relations, with both sides asserting cultural and religious claims.
• The 1968 events, including Bal Thackeray’s involvement, marked a turning point in communal mobilization in Maharashtra.
• The dispute has been instrumental for political parties like the Shiv Sena, which used it to consolidate their Hindutva agenda
• The ruling underscores the complexities of adjudicating disputes over religious sites, where historical narratives, religious sentiments, and legal frameworks intersect.
• While the court recognized state ownership, it refrained from addressing the historicity of the structures, leaving room for further legal and social contention.
• The lack of clarity on prayer rights for both communities leaves the site in a tenuous balance, with continued possibilities for dispute.
• The Durgadi Fort case reflects a broader trend of contestation over religious sites in India, where history and faith are leveraged for political purposes.
• A resolution would require not just legal clarity but also efforts at fostering communal harmony and shared heritage narratives.
• However, the entrenched positions of both sides and the politicization of the issue make such a resolution challenging.

Centre declares snakebites ''notifiable disease'': Here''s what it means

·         Snakebite is not just an injury, but a medical condition with the potential to cause significant harm and even death, warranting its classification as a disease 

·         Snakebites are an issue of public health concern and in certain cases, they cause mortality, morbidity, and disability, Union Health Secretary said.

·          The farmers, tribal population, etc. are at higher risk.

·         To address the issue of snakebite, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, has launched the "National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAPSE) from India by 2030" in consultation with relevant ministries and stakeholders.

Why mandate to report cases?

·         The move comes under the recommendation of the National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAPSE), which was launched earlier this year with the aim of halving snakebite deaths by 2030.

·         Reporting the cases to health authorities will enable better tracking, resource allocation, and response efforts. This move aims to address the underreporting of snakebite cases, improve data collection for effective interventions, and ultimately reduce the high mortality rate associated with these incidents.

What Does It Mean to Make a Disease Notifiable?

·         Diseases like tuberculosis, HIV, cholera, malaria, and dengue are already categorized as notifiable.

·         A notifiable disease requires mandatory reporting of cases and deaths by healthcare providers to the government.

·         This allows for accurate data collection, monitoring, and response planning for outbreaks and public health emergencies.

Why Are Snakebites a Public Health Concern?

·         High Incidence and Mortality

·         India records 3–4 million snakebite cases annually, with 58,000 deaths according to the Indian Million Death Study (2020).

·         Medical Emergencies

·         Bites can cause severe complications like paralysis, haemorrhage, and organ damage, requiring immediate care and antivenom treatment.

The ‘Big Four’ Snakes in India

·         Indian Cobra, Common Krait, Russell’s Viper, and Saw-Scaled Viper account for 90% of snakebite cases.

·         Antivenoms available in India are polyvalent, designed to neutralize venom from these species, covering about 80% of cases.

Challenges in Snakebite Treatment

·         Access to Healthcare

·         Victims often fail to reach healthcare facilities in time, relying on traditional healers instead.

·         Healthcare centres may lack trained staff and diagnostic tools.

Limitations of Antivenoms

·         Geographical Variation: Venom composition varies by region, affecting the efficacy of available antivenoms.

·         Species-Specific Venom: Existing antivenoms may not neutralize toxins from local species like the banded krait or green pit viper.

·         Adverse Reactions: Antivenoms can trigger allergic reactions.

Venom Collection

·         Venom for antivenom production is sourced from snakes caught by the Irula tribe, leading to supply constraints.

·         Restrictions under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 further limit venom collection.

Why Is Notification Important?

·         Accurate Data: Facilitates understanding of the true burden, high-risk areas, and patterns of snakebite cases and deaths.

·         Resource Allocation: Ensures adequate distribution of antivenoms and healthcare resources to regions with frequent snakebites.

·         Training: Improves clinical management by equipping healthcare professionals with the required skills and knowledge.

Steps Under the National Action Plan (NAPSE)

·         Launched in 2023, the National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAPSE) aims to reduce snakebite deaths by 50% by 2030.

Recommendations include:

·         Establishing zonal venom banks to address regional venom variations.

·         Developing artificial antibodies and peptides for neutralizing toxins.

·         Enhancing public awareness about timely treatment.

States at Higher Risk

·         Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat are high-risk regions due to dense populations, agricultural activity, and low altitudes.

Conclusion

·         Making snakebites a notifiable disease is a critical step toward better surveillance, targeted interventions, and improved healthcare responses.

·         It aligns with global efforts to combat snakebite envenoming, ensuring timely treatment and reducing preventable deaths.

UK Scientists Develop World''s First 5,000-Year Diamond Battery.

·         Scientists in the UK have unveiled a groundbreaking innovation: the world''s first diamond battery, a sustainable alternative to lithium-ion batteries with an astonishing lifespan of 5,000 years.

·          “Carbon-14 emits short-range radiation, which is quickly absorbed by any solid material. While this would make it hazardous to ingest or touch directly, encapsulating it in diamond ensures that no radiation escapes.”

·         The diamond, acting as a semiconductor, converts the radioactivity into electricity while its unparalleled hardness prevents any radioactive leakage. This innovative design not only ensures safety but also delivers unmatched durability.

·         The development marks a significant step in the search for long-lasting and eco-friendly energy solutions, with potential applications in healthcare and space exploration.

How Does It Work?

·         Material: The battery is created by encasing radioactive carbon-14 inside a diamond. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope commonly used for carbon dating in archaeology.

·         Encapsulation for Safety: To ensure safety, small amounts of carbon-14 are sealed within diamond crystals using a specialised plasma rig. These diamonds, sourced from nuclear facilities, act as a radiation shield.

·         Longevity: Thanks to the half-life of carbon-14 (5,700 years), the battery can last for 10,000+ years before its charge drops below 50%.

Applications :

·   Space Exploration:

·         Rovers on planets or asteroids.

·         Tracking tags and transmitters for spacecraft.

·     Maritime and Deep-Sea Operations:

·         Devices on maritime vessels requiring long-lasting power without recharging.

·    Medical Implants:

·         Could power implants like pacemakers, reducing the need for replacements.

·     Security and Monitoring Devices:

·         Long-lasting tracking systems and remote sensors for security.

Advantages:

·         Incredibly Long Life: No need for replacement for millennia.

·         Safe Design: Encapsulation in diamond ensures no harmful radiation escapes.

·         Wide Range of Applications: From space exploration to healthcare and security.

Future Developments:

·         Scientists are collaborating with industry and research partners to explore practical applications for this micropower technology, which could transform various fields by offering ultra-durable, maintenance-free energy solutions.

·         This innovative development positions the diamond battery as a potential game-changer in energy storage and power generation, especially for applications where longevity is critical

 First ice-free day in the Arctic Ocean could come before 2030

·         Since 1979, when satellites made it possible to measure its extent faithfully, the Arctic Ocean has been losing almost 80,000 km² (30,888 m²) of ice every year.

·         The amount is equivalent to the land mass of the U.S. state of Maine and this has been happening for nearly half a century.

·         In 2023 the Arctic ice sheet reached an all-time low, and the four major lows have all occurred in this century. Some time ago, scientists modeled when the first year would come in which, at the end of the summer, there would be nothing but sea.

·          More recently, researchers calculated that the melt would occur one September in the next 20 years.

·         Now, scientists who have been studying the region for over a decade have modeled and estimated when the first ice-free day in the Arctic will occur.

·         Supported by the most advanced climate models, the researchers simulated the evolution of the Arctic ice floe starting from the situation of 2023, when its extension marked one of its historical minimums, with 3.3 million km² (the Arctic has a total extension of more than 16 million km²).

·         It is  found that, whatever we do in terms of greenhouse gas emissions now, that first ice-free day is already inevitable. Although if emissions are drastically reduced, the number of ice-free days beyond this first one could be minimized.

·         In reality, the Arctic is not going to become completely ice-free, but scientists use the term “ice-free” to refer to the (historic) moment when the Arctic’s ice extent drops below 1 million km².

·         “This threshold has been used for more than a decade in scientific studies, because, although the sea ice area of one million km² is not small in absolute terms, it is north of Greenland and the Canadian Arctic archipelago, leaving 93% of the Arctic Ocean free of sea ice.” There will be ice, but it will no longer be a frozen ocean.

·         Of the nearly 400 projections the researchers have made, most indicate that this first ice-free day will take place in the next few years. It could even arrive as early as the summer of 2027.

·         The prospect of the Arctic Ocean experiencing its first ice-free day as early as 2030 is a significant development with profound implications for the planet.

Key Findings

·         Earlier Ice-Free Day:

·         The study, published in Nature Communications, predicts that the Arctic may experience its first ice-free day (less than one million square kilometers of sea ice) before 2030, even under scenarios of drastic greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions.

·         Nine simulations suggest this could occur as early as 2027 if specific conditions align, such as unusually warm seasons and stormy weather that hastens ice breakup.

·         Arctic sea ice has been shrinking at a rate of 12.6% per decade, the fastest in at least 1,500 years.

·         Even if GHG emissions are drastically reduced, the event is seen as inevitable due to past and ongoing emissions.

Implications of an Ice-Free Arctic

·         Exacerbated Climate Change:

·         Albedo Effect: Sea ice reflects sunlight, helping to cool the polar regions. Without it, the darker ocean surface absorbs more heat, accelerating Arctic warming and triggering a feedback loop.

·         Extreme Weather: Warmer Arctic conditions disrupt global weather patterns, causing more severe heatwaves, storms, and cold spells in the mid-latitudes.

Rising Sea Levels:

·         The loss of Arctic ice contributes indirectly to sea level rise by warming the planet, accelerating the melting of land-based ice like the Greenland Ice Sheet. If Greenland fully melts, sea levels could rise by 6 meters, submerging coastal cities worldwide.

·         Current sea level rise is already 1.5 times faster than in the 1990s, with the rate now at 3.6 mm annually.

Ecosystem Collapse:

·         Arctic species like polar bears, walruses, and Arctic foxes depend on sea ice for survival. Its disappearance forces animals to adapt, migrate, or face extinction.

·         The broader food web, including humans who rely on Arctic biodiversity, could be destabilized.

Permafrost Melting:

·         Melting permafrost releases trapped methane, a potent GHG, into the atmosphere, worsening global warming.

Economic and Geopolitical Impacts:

·         Ice-free Arctic waters could open new shipping routes, making Arctic navigation viable but increasing the risk of oil spills and pollution.

·         The region’s vast untapped resources, such as oil and gas, may spark geopolitical competition.

·         Immediate action a necessity to mitigate its worst impacts.

 What does ''One Nation, One Election'' mean? Pros and cons?

·         The idea of ''One Nation, One Election'' refers to holding simultaneous elections across the country.

·         This means that elections for the Lok Sabha and all state assemblies across India will be held simultaneously — with voting presumably taking place around the same time.

·         Simultaneous elections for the state assemblies and the Lok Sabha were the norm in India till 1967.

·         However, things changed when some legislative assemblies were dissolved prematurely in 1968 and 1969 and the Lok Sabha in 1970.

·         A decade later, the Election Commission in 1983 proposed to bring back simultaneous elections. However, in its annual report, the commission said the then government decided against it.

·         The 1999 Law Commission report also pushed for simultaneous elections.

·         The recent push came from the Bharatiya Janata Party, which said in its election manifesto for the 2014 Lok Sabha election that it will seek to evolve a method of holding the elections simultaneously to ensure stability for state governments.

·         The Union Cabinet, headed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, gave its approval to two Bills aimed at implementing simultaneous state and national elections.

·         According to reports, the Cabinet cleared the Constitutional Amendment Bill to conduct elections to the Lok Sabha and state Assemblies together and a second Bill to align the polls in the Union Territories of Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu & Kashmir. The second bill does not require amending the Constitution.

·         The BJP-led National Democratic Alliance will need backing from some of the members of the opposition INDIA alliance, besides fence-sitters, to ensure the passage of the Constitution Amendment Bill requiring support from two-thirds of the members in both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

·          The NDA''s current strength in Lok Sabha, which currently has 542 members and one vacancy, is around 293 against the two-third mark of 361. The INDIA bloc enjoys support of nearly 235 MPs.

·         In Rajya Sabha, the ruling alliance has nearly 122 members, a tally which is set to rise after the ongoing process to fill vacancies will be over. The sanctioned strength in Rajya Sabha is 243.

·          In September, the Union Cabinet approved the recommendations of a high-level committee headed by former President Ram Nath Kovind. The Kovind panel had submitted the report in March ahead of the announcement of Lok Sabha elections.

·          Simultaneous polls were held in the country between 1951 and 1967. The concept of simultaneous elections has featured in many reports and studies since 1983, essentially implying a return to the previous practice of conducting polls concurrently.

Main recommendations of the panel:

·         1) Amendment to Article 82A: The Committee recommends amending Article 82A of the Constitution to allow the President to set an ‘appointed date’ for starting simultaneous elections to the House of the People and Legislative Assemblies.

·          After this date, state Assemblies would align their terms with the Parliament, enabling synchronised elections.

·         2) Term Synchronisation: If the recommendations are adopted after the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, the first simultaneous elections could be held in 2029.

·         • Alternatively, if aiming for the 2034 elections, the appointed date would be set after the 2029 Lok Sabha polls.

·          States with elections scheduled between June 2024 and May 2029 would have their terms end with the 18th Lok Sabha, potentially resulting in shorter terms for some state assemblies as a one-time adjustment.

·          States like West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (2026), Punjab, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh (2027), and Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Telangana (2028) would adjust their election cycles accordingly.

·          The government elected post-2024 will decide when to start simultaneous elections, either in 2029 or 2034.

·         3) Premature Dissolution Measures: To maintain synchronisation in case of early dissolution of Parliament or a state Assembly, fresh elections would be held only for the remaining term until the next simultaneous elections.

·         This ensures that any hung House or no-confidence motions do not disrupt the overall timeline for synchronized elections.

·         4) Synchronisation of Local Body Elections: Parliament is advised to pass legislation, possibly via Article 324A, to align municipalities and panchayats elections with General Elections.

·          This law would set the terms for local bodies to match the national electoral schedule.

·         5) Electoral Roll Preparation and Management: The Committee proposes amending Article 325 to enable the Election Commission of India (EC) to create a unified electoral roll and Elector’s Photo Identity Card (EPIC) for all levels of government, in consultation with State Election Commissions (SECs).

·          Currently, the EC prepares electoral rolls for Lok Sabha, while SECs handle local bodies. Harmonising these processes would prevent duplication and protect voter rights.

·         6) Logistical Arrangements and Expenditure Estimation: The Committee calls on the ECI to provide detailed logistical and expenditure plans for simultaneous elections.

·         Comprehensive plans should cover equipment, personnel deployment, and security measures, developed in coordination with SECs.

·         7) Impact on Governance and Development: The Committee emphasizes that certainty in governance is crucial for effective decision-making and sustained development.

·          Synchronised elections can help avoid policy paralysis and create a favorable environment for progress.

INS Tushil

• Indian Navy’s Russian-manufactured guided missile frigate INS Tushil was commissioned into the force at Russia’s coastal city of Kaliningrad in presence of Defence Minister Rajnath Singh
• INS Tushil is the seventh Project 11356 frigate built for India. The first three (Talwar, Trishul, Tabar) were built by the “Baltiysky zawod” shipyard in St. Petersburg and delivered in 2003-2004. The next three (Teg, Tarkash, Trikand) were completed by “Yantar” in Kaliningrad, while the flags were raised between 2012 and 2013.
• The warship is expected to significantly bolster the Indian Navy’s operational capability in the Indian Ocean.

Highlights of INS Tushil:

• INS Tushil is an upgraded Krivak III class frigate of Project 1135.6, of which, six are already in service – three Talwar class ships, built at Baltiysky shipyard, St. Petersburg, and three follow-on Teg class ships, built at Yantar shipyard, Kaliningrad. 
• INS Tushil, the seventh in the series, is the first of the two upgraded additional follow-on ships.
• INS Tushil has been constructed in Russia as part of an over $2.5-billion deal that New Delhi had inked with Moscow in 2016 for four stealth frigates for the Indian Navy.

•  The ship’s name, ‘Tushil’, means “the protector shield” and its crest represents the ‘Abhedya Kavacham’ (impenetrable shield). 
•  Along with its motto, ‘Nirbhay, Abhedya aur Balsheel’ (Fearless, Indomitable, Resolute), the ship stands as a symbol of the Indian Navy’s undying commitment to protect and safeguard the nation’s maritime frontiers.
•  The 3,900-tonne ship with a length of 125 metres packs a lethal punch and is an impressive blend of Russian and Indian cutting edge technologies and best practices in warship construction.
•  The ship’s keel was laid on July 12, 2013 and was launched in water in October 2021. 
•  It is designed for blue water operations across the spectrum of naval warfare in all four dimensions air, surface, underwater and electromagnetic.
• It is armed with a range of advanced weapons, including the jointly-developed BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles, vertically-launched Shtil Surface-to-Air Missiles with enhanced ranges, upgraded medium-range anti-air and surface gun with advanced stealth features, optically-controlled close-range rapid fire gun system, anti-submarine torpedoes and rockets and advanced electronic warfare and communication suite.
• The ship’s new design provides it with enhanced stealth features and better stability characteristics. 
•  With the collaboration of Indian naval specialists and Severnoye Design Bureau, the indigenous content of the ship has been enhanced to an impressive 26 per cent.

• The warship is the result of the continuous toil of hundreds of shipyard workers along with multiple Russian and Indian Original Equipment Makers (OEMs).
• The major Indian defence firms involved in the project were BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited, Bharat Electronics Limited, Keltron, Nova Integrated Systems from Tata, Elcome Marine, Johnson Controls India and others.
• INS Tushil is joining the Western Fleet of the Indian Navy and will rank amongst the most technologically advanced frigates in the world.
•  It will not only be a symbol of the Indian Navy’s growing capabilities, but also the resilient collaborative strength of the India-Russia partnership.

Urban Sector Investments Increase 16-Fold, Government Expands Efforts Towards Vikshit Bharat by 2047

• The Union Minister for Housing and Urban Affairs and Power, Shri Manohar Lal, today highlighted the significant increase in urban sector investments during a press briefing in New Delhi.
• He stated that investments have grown 16 times, from approximately ₹1,78,053 crore between 2004-14 to ₹28,52,527 crore since 2014.
•  This increase underscores the government’s commitment to achieving the goal of Vikshit Bharat by 2047.
• The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): This mission makes a speciality of ensuring basic services like water supply, sewerage, and concrete shipping to enhance the high-quality of life in cities, mainly for the urban poor.

Achievements: 

• Creation of 4,649 million liters per day (MLD) water treatment potential.
• Establishment of 4,429 MLD sewage treatment potential.
• Under AMRUT 2.0, stormwater drainage projects are being prioritized to cope with waterlogging, in conjunction with initiatives to improve ingesting water and sewerage structures.
• Smart Cities and New Cities Scheme: Launched in 2015, this initiative aims to promote sustainable and inclusive cities by the use of smart technology for better infrastructure, transportation, and services. 

Urban Mobility and Sustainability Initiatives:

• Expansion of Regional Rapid Transit Systems (RRTS).
• Promotion of e-mobility and walkable streets in cities to lessen pollutants and cope with environmental issues.
• Under the scheme the metro network has increased extensively, expanding to the new cities.

Urban Housing and PMAY 2.0: 

• Converting present Government funded vacant houses into ARH through PPP mode or via Public Agencies.
• Provisional sanctions for around 7% of the planned 1 crore urban houses based on the population of states signing MoUs, ensuring well timed allocation and expediting the system.
• Swachh Bharat Mission: Over the past six months two primary dumpsites in Ahmedabad and Hyderabad were absolutely remediated, efficiently addressing about 2.5 lakh metric tonnes of legacy waste.
• Under the PM Svanidhi Scheme, loans totaling ₹13,422 crore were distributed to road providers.

Urbanisation in India

• In Western countries, urbanisation followed industrialisation, which created jobs that absorbed rural labour.
• Their urbanisation was sustained also due to huge economic transfers from colonies. 
• In assessment, India’s urbanisation is largely driven by economic misery, ensuing in poverty-pushed urbanisation, with both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration.
• During the COVID-19 pandemic, the strain on urban planning was apparent, as opposite migration trends highlighted gaps in infrastructure.
• According to the 2011 Census, India’s urban population multiplied from 27.7% in 2001 to 31.1% in 2011, at a rate of 2.76% per year.
• World Bank estimates propose around 40% of India’s population remaining urban areas, in around 9,000 statutory and census cities.
• How well India manages this urban transformation will play a crucial position in knowing its aim of being a developed country by 2047, the 100th year of independence.

Challenges :

• Outdated Plans: Spatial and temporal plans are frequently old and fail to deal with population increase. 
• Overcrowded Unplanned Areas: Since the 1980s, deindustrialisation has led to activity losses in cities like Ahmedabad, Delhi, Surat, and Mumbai.
• Many workers displaced through this fashion moved to peri-urban regions, wherein they live in overcrowded conditions. 
• Currently, 40% of India’s urban population resides in slums. 
• Climate Change: Climate change significantly impacts Indian towns.
• Cities face extreme pollution and are more and more difficult to urban flooding and heat island outcomes. 
• Inequality in Development: Inequality is widening, with different tendencies catering to the rich while millions lack basic housing.
• Waste Management: Rapid urbanization has brought about improved waste technology, and many cities warfare with effective waste collection and disposal, resulting in environmental degradation.
• Transportation and Traffic Congestion: Inadequate public transport structures, coupled with a rise in private vehicle possession, make a contribution to severe traffic congestion and pollution.

Way Ahead

• Infrastructure Development: Prioritizing the development of urban infrastructure like roads, water supply, sanitation, and waste control to house the growing population.
• Affordable Housing: Ensuring the provision of cheap housing to reduce overcrowding in urban regions and address the desires of the lower-income population.
• Sustainable Growth: Emphasizing inexperienced and sustainable urban improvement via specializing in renewable energy, efficient areas, and waste recycling.

Burgeoning Burden Cess and surcharge

• Arvind Panagariya, Chairman, sixteenth Finance Commission, termed the grievance of States concerning the Centre’s increasing reliance on cesses and surcharges as a complicated issue.
• Dr. Panagariya determined that the proportion of States within the divisible pool has risen from 32% inside the thirteenth Finance Commission to 42% under the 14th. 
• The Centre is entitled to gather cesses and surcharges under a Constitutional provision.

Cess and Surcharge

• Cess and Surcharge are more taxes that are levied over and above the fundamental tax liability.
• Cess: It is calculated as a percentage of the base tax (e.g., income tax or GST) and is used for designated causes, like education, health, or sanitation.
• Cess is typically non-refundable and needs to be paid on top of the ordinary tax liability. 
• Examples encompass Education Cess and Health Cess.

Surcharge: 

• It is imposed on higher-income individuals, groups, or entities to increase government revenue. 
• Unlike cess, the surcharge does no longer have a specific earmarked motive and goes into the general revenue fund. 
• The price of surcharge will increase as the taxable income rises, and it’s implemented on top of the base tax amount.

Digital currencies represents a transformative shift in the global financial Landscape

•  The advent of digital currencies represents a transformative shift in the global financial landscape. In India, the central bank digital currency (CBDC), known as the digital rupee, is gaining traction as a viable alternative to traditional cash and existing digital payment systems. This initiative is timely, especially in light of recent global economic trends and technological advancements.

Digital Rupee

• The digital rupee is just like an electronic currency issued in India through the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
• The digital rupee is affiliated to the government unlike based cryptocurrencies such as Bumblebee and is supposed to act as a stable and secure mode of currency.

Features:

• Centralized Control: As a CBDC, the digital rupee is regulated by the RBI, ensuring stability and trust.
• Digital Transactions: It facilitates instant transactions without the need for intermediaries, enhancing efficiency.
• Programmable Money: The digital rupee can be programmed to ensure that funds are used for specific purposes, thereby preventing misuse.

Reasons for Adoption

• There are several reasons behind promoting the use of digital rupee which collectively explain the significance of the shift.
• Financial Inclusion: The effective integration of the digital rupee is supposed to liberate more people from financial exclusion. A large number of people within the country still have no access to banking and or has limited access to financial services. The involvement of the government through education of the public about a ‘digital currency’ can improve people’s awareness of joining a proper financial system.
• Accessibility: Because this money can be obtained through one’s smartphone or other device, residents of remote areas can benefit by participating in the financial markets.
• Reduced Barriers: Reduced transaction costs and enhanced financial inclusion are some of the ways through which the disadvantaged populace can be strengthened.
• Efficiency in Subsidy Payments: Currently, the Indian government Incurs a significant amount of subsidies where different sectors in the country receive subsidies for food, fuel, and fertilizers among others. Transitioning to the digital rupee for subsidy payments could yield significant advantages:
• Targeted Transfers: The benefits are that the digital rupee can provide the specific targeting of the targets relieving leakage and fraud where subsidies reach unintended people.
• Timely Disbursement: Programmable features allow funds to be delivered with time-conditional strings attached, thus avoiding some of the shortcomings of such techniques, like general cash transfers.
• Cost Savings: Adopting a digital currency can avert a significant amount of costs for the government:
• Reduced Cash Management Costs: The use of a physical cash in government is replaced by a digital currency, this significantly reduces the costs of printing currency, storage and transporting the currency notes.
• Lower Transaction Costs: Online purchases and other contactless transactions tend to cost less than conventional monetary operations to the benefit of the client and company.

Geopolitical Implications

• The rise of CBDCs is not merely an economic trend; it also has geopolitical implications. As countries around the world explore their own digital currencies, India’s push for the digital rupee positions it strategically in global finance.
• This development and concern that private cryptocurrencies might influence monetary policy have led many nations to consider CBDCs. By adopting a digital currency, India can:
• Enhance Monetary Sovereignty: A state digital currency works to keep a check on the increasing private crypto adoption at a time when such monetary tools are on the rise.
• Strengthen Economic Resilience: The current situation where global reserve currencies are politicized means that a strong domestic currency can protect against the external environment.

Future Developments

• Integration with Existing Systems: Transitional integration into current payment systems could be made easier through a process approach to accommodative digital rupee integration. The relationship with fintech firms could further accelerate innovation, and improve the customer value proposition.
• Cross-Border Transactions: The capability to perform digital rupee payment in foreign trade may well position India in the global markets.
• Bilateral Agreements: CBDC and its interoperation with the other countries could be beneficial in simplifying trade forms and cutting costs of transactions.

Conclusion

• The push for a digital rupee represents a timely response to evolving economic realities in India and globally. By embracing this innovation, India can enhance financial inclusion, improve efficiency in subsidy payments, save costs, and strengthen its geopolitical standing.
• However, addressing technological challenges and fostering public acceptance will be crucial for successful implementation. As India moves forward with its central bank digital currency initiative, it stands at a pivotal juncture that could redefine its financial landscape for years to come.

Environmental cost of Space Exploration

• The rapid advancement of space exploration has brought to light significant concerns regarding its environmental impact. While the focus has often been on terrestrial pollution, the climate footprint of space activities is increasingly passing below the radar, necessitating a thorough examination.

The Environmental Cost of Rocket Launches

• Pollution from Rocket Emissions: In regard to the atmosphere, rocket launches emit different gases and particles that pollute the atmosphere. CO2, water vapor, and black carbon are released when rocket propellants are burned; these will respectively contribute to climate change.
• Notably it was stated that solid rocket fuels produce chlorine gas which destroys the ozone layer in the stratosphere subjecting the earth surface to more ultraviolet radiation.
• Impact on Ozone Layer: Ozone layer remains very vital in shielding life at the surface of earth from dangerous ultraviolet radiation. Studies show that rocket emissions may produce large ozone losses. Chlorine involved in launches attacks the ozone molecules and decreases this gas’ concentration; however, it may produce long term effects on the environment.

Orbital Debris and Its Consequences

• Growing Problem of Space Junk: With increased probes to outer space, the problem of space junk inflates as well. NASA reveals that there’s a huge ‘space debris’, hundreds of dead satellites and other decommissioned rocket stages still hovering around the earth thus becoming a deadly threat to active space navigation.
• This debris poses a danger to operational satellites since it may consistently hit them leading to formation of even more debris.
• Environmental Impact on Earth: Orbital debris is mainly a concern to space activities while the debris’ reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere represents risks too. Fragments can burn up upon re-entry, however, size pieces could reach the ground, and cause local damages. However, with a higher number of launches, there is disappointment in the effects on the Earth’s atmosphere after some time.

Lack of Regulation and Accountability

• Insufficient Global Frameworks: At the present day, there are no specific universal norms regulating the environment in the field of space activities. The current treaties are mainly concerned with the safety of the aircraft and whose responsibility it is to bear the cost of compensation rather than the environment.
•  This is a rather significant loophole for corporations to be emitting carbon and creating debris without any consideration of how they are devastating the planet.
• Need for Sustainable Practices: As such, Laing has affirmed that ‘sustainable practices’ needs to be carried out within the space industry in order to reduce its climate footprint.
• This involves enhancing environmentally friendly and efficient propulsive systems that emit minimal undesirable discharges and escalating rules on waste control.
• These are concepts such as adopting reusable rocket technology, one which can go a long way in reducing waste and pollutants.

Conclusion

• As we continue to push the boundaries of space exploration, it is imperative to address its environmental implications.
• The climate footprint associated with rocket launches and orbital debris must not be overlooked. By fostering international cooperation and establishing robust regulatory frameworks, we can ensure that our quest for knowledge does not come at the expense of our planet’s health.
• Sustainable practices in space exploration will be crucial in balancing our ambitions with environmental stewardship for future generations.