• The first time India conducted a nuclear test was in 1974 when the test was called a "peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE)".
• India conducted its second nuclear test in May 1998, which shocked the world.
• Subsequently, in 1998, the Prime Minister of India declared that India was now a nuclear weapon state.

Early phase of India’s nuclear journey

• In 1968, India refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
• This decision was based on India''s belief that the NPT was discriminatory, as it allowed the five nuclear-weapon states to retain their arsenals while prohibiting other countries from developing nuclear weapons.
• India''s decision to not sign the NPT led to several consequences, including:
• Increased tensions with Pakistan, which is also a nuclear-weapon state.
• Sanctions from the United States and other countries.
• Limited access to nuclear technology and materials.

Pakistan’s nuclear program

• In the years following India''s decision to not sign the NPT, Pakistan continued to develop its nuclear program.
• By the early 1980s, Pakistan was enriching uranium at Kahuta, and by the late 1980s, it had weaponized its deterrent with Chinese help.
• As the frontline state in the United States covert war against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, Pakistan was able to get the United States to turn a blind eye to its nuclear developments.

Final phase of India’s nuclear journey

• In the 1990s, there was a growing realization in India that the nuclear option could no longer remain viable and needed to be exercised.
• This was due to several factors, including:
• Technological advances since the 1974 PNE.
• Post-Cold War global developments, such as tightening dual-use export controls.
• The extension of the NPT into perpetuity in 1995.
• The start of negotiations on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1994.

1995:

• France and China conduct nuclear tests to validate designs and acquire data.
• Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao gives the green light for tests in India.
• Preparatory work begins at Pokhran.
• Days before the tests were scheduled, US satellites pick up imagery of activity at Pokhran.
• The tests are postponed until after the general elections.
• The Indian stand on CTBT negotiations hardens.

1996:

• Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee suggested the idea of conducting nuclear tests, but decides against it due to his short tenure.

1998:

• India conducts a series of nuclear tests at Pokhran.
• The tests are met with international condemnation.
• India is placed under sanctions by the United States and other countries.

Challenges Related to Nuclear Policy of India

Domestic challenges

• India''s nuclear triad is still a work in progress.
• The land-based missile force has now inducted Agni IV with an estimated range of 3,500 km.
• Agni V and Agni VI are expected to extend the ranges beyond 6,000 km.
• The nuclear submarine programme has made slow progress, with Arihant having undertaken its first patrol last year.
• However, it currently carries a K-15 (Sagarika) missile that has a limited range of 700 km.
• Longer-range missiles are under development.

Technological challenges:

• India must factor in technological developments that can have an impact on the credibility of its deterrent.
• Increasing use of dual-use systems such as hypersonics and cruise missiles, and conventional precision global strike weapons blur the dividing line between nuclear and conventional systems.
• Digitisation renders both early warning and command-and-control systems vulnerable to counter-space and offensive cyber action.

Questions about nuclear doctrine:

• These developments have led to questions as to how to define the “minimum” and whether the no-first-use policy needs review.
• Kargil in 1999, and the Mumbai attacks in 2008 were seen as evidence of the failure of nuclear deterrence.
• However, Indian doctrine is intended to deter the threat and use of nuclear weapons.
• Dealing with Kargil-type attacks or terrorist strikes requires building conventional and intelligence capabilities that offer a range of response options.

External diplomatic challenges:

• India faced the challenge of gaining acceptance as a responsible nuclear power after conducting nuclear tests in 1998.
• The government was proactive in reaching out to key countries, particularly the United States.
• The dialogue between the Deputy Secretary of State (USA) and the Foreign Minister of India between 1998 and 2000 was the most intense phase of bilateral engagement.
• The dialogue was inconclusive, but it was immensely productive in clearing the path towards the Next Steps in Strategic Partnership and eventually the India-US Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement.
• The NSG waiver legitimized India''s civilian nuclear trade and has enabled over a dozen cooperation agreements to be concluded.

More Challenges Ahead:

• Changing geopolitics has revived rivalries among major nuclear powers.
• The geopolitical centre of gravity has shifted from Euro-Atlantic to the Indo-Pacific.
• Navigating these challenges will require policy adjustments that will be strengthened by consensus and continuity.

India has made significant progress in meeting its external diplomatic challenges since the 1998 nuclear tests. This progress has been due in large part to the continuity of India''s nuclear policy. However, India faces new challenges in the 21st century, and it will need to continue to adapt its policy to meet these challenges.