On July 5, Earth reaches its farthest from the sun for the entire year, a moment astronomers call Aphelion.

Aphelion

• Aphelion is the point in Earth’s orbit where it is farthest from the Sun. The Earth receives less radiation from the sun, as heat, than at any other time of the year.
• Occurrence: Aphelion occurs every year in July.
• The sun is at its smallest in the sky.

Aphelion and Earth’s Elliptical Orbit

• Johannes Kepler: It was 17th-century German mathematician Johannes Kepler who revealed that all planets orbit in an ellipse in his first law of planetary motion.
• Elliptical Orbit of the Earth: Earth’s orbit around the Sun is not a perfect circle; it is elliptical (oval-shaped).
• Aphelion and Perihelion: This elliptical shape means that there are points in the orbit where Earth is closer to the Sun (perihelion) and points where it is farther from the Sun (aphelion).
• At aphelion, Earth is about 152.1 million km (94.5 million miles) from the Sun.
• In early January, Earth reaches perihelion, the point where it is closest to the Sun, at about 147.1 million km (91.4 million miles).

Gravitational Influences:

• The elliptical nature of planetary orbits is due to gravitational forces.
• Planets exert gravitational influences on each other, causing their orbits to be elongated rather than circular.
• Jupiter, the most massive planet in the solar system, has the greatest influence on the orbits of other planets.

Measuring Eccentricity:

• The degree to which an orbit deviates from a perfect circle is called its eccentricity.
• Higher eccentricity indicates a more elliptical orbit.
• For example, Mars has an eccentricity of 0.094, Pluto has 0.244, and Earth has a low eccentricity of 0.017.

Aphelion and Earth’s Temperatures:

• A common misconception is that Earth’s varying distance from the Sun causes the seasons.
• Earth receives 7% less sunlight at aphelion compared to perihelion, leading to slightly milder summers and winters in the Northern Hemisphere.
• However, the effect of Earth’s distance from the Sun is offset by the planet’s axial tilt, which causes the seasons.

Hypothetical Scenarios:

• No Aphelion: If Earth’s orbit were a perfect circle, the lengths of the seasons would be exactly the same.
• Currently, spring and summer are a few days longer than fall and winter in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Increased Eccentricity: If Earth’s orbit became more eccentric, it would lead to extreme seasons, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Summers would be unbearably hot, and winters intolerably cold, potentially leading to crop failures and making advanced civilization difficult.

Conclusion: Earth’s current orbital characteristics and distance from the Sun create a stable environment conducive to life.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit 2024 in Astana, Kazakhstan.

• Recently, the Indian External Affairs Minister attended the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit in Astana, Kazakhstan.
• He also held bilateral meetings with his counterparts from SCO members Tajikistan and Russia, and the newest member Belarus.

Issues Highlighted by India in the SCO Summit 2024

• On Rising Tensions: Ongoing conflicts, rising tensions, trust deficits and increasing number of hotspots around the world have put significant strain on international relations and global economic growth.
• The SCO gathering is aimed at finding common ground to mitigate the consequences of these developments.
• On Terrorism: Priority must naturally be given to combating terrorism, one of the original goals of the SCO. Terrorism challenge has been faced by many countries, often originating beyond our borders.
• Terrorism in any form or manifestation cannot be justified or condoned. International community must isolate and expose those countries that harbour terrorists, provide safe havens and condone terrorism.
• Cross-border terrorism requires a decisive response and terrorism financing and recruitment must be resolutely countered.
• There is also a need to take proactive steps to prevent the spread of radicalization among the youth.
• On Climate Change: Members need to work towards achieving committed reduction in emissions, including transition to alternate fuels, adoption of electric vehicles, and building climate-resilient infrastructure.
• On Connectivity: Economic development requires robust connectivity. That can also pave the way for cooperation and trust between the societies.
• Respect for sovereignty, territorial integrity, non-discriminatory trade rights and transit regimes is essential for connectivity and infrastructure projects.
• On Technology: The 21st century is the century of technology and the SCO has to make technology creative and apply it to the welfare and progress of the societies.
• India is among the countries to formulate a National Strategy on Artificial Intelligence and the launch of an AI Mission.
• India’s commitment to ‘AI for All’ is also reflected in working within the SCO framework on a Roadmap on AI cooperation.
• On Central Asia: India shares deep civilizational ties with the people of this region. Recognizing the centrality of Central Asia to SCO, India has prioritized their interests and aspirations. It is reflected in greater exchanges, projects and activities with them.
• On Cooperation: Cooperation in the SCO has been people-centric. SCO provides a unique platform to unite people, collaborate, grow and prosper together, practicing the millenia old principle of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam which means ‘The World is One Family’.
• India organized SCO Millet Food Festival, SCO Film Festival, SCO Surajkund Craft Mela, SCO Think-Tanks Conference, and International Conference on Shared Buddhist Heritage during its presidency.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

With the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 into 15 independent countries, there were concerns in the region about extremist religious groups and ethnic tensions coming to the fore. To manage these issues, a grouping was created for cooperation on security matters.

• Origin: Its origins lie in the “Shanghai Five”, formed in 1996 and consisting of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
• Establishment: The SCO was established on June 15, 2001, in Shanghai as an international organization, and also included Uzbekistan as a sixth member.
• Members: Before the inclusion of Belarus, it had nine members: India, Iran, Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• Observer Status: Afghanistan and Mongolia
• Significance: SCO is one of the few international organizations which deal with security issues and primarily has Asian members.
• Alternative to Western International Order: Both Russia and China have stressed its position as an alternative to a “Western” international order.
• Along with the BRICS grouping, which has India, South Africa and Brazil as well, the two countries are seen positioning against US influence.
• Challenges: The opaque parameters it uses to launch its initiatives and institutions allows countries to look past the rivalries they have with others in the group. But it does nothing to heal the rifts.
• Example: SCO embraces both Pakistan and India, which acknowledge their mutually hostile ties. India’s relationship with China itself is also tense on several fronts.

Relevance of SCO for India

The SCO provides a platform for India to enhance economic cooperation and communicate with security concerns.

• A Forum to Enhance Cooperation with Central Asian Countries: SCO membership allows India to participate in a forum which enhances its scope of cooperation with Central Asian countries, which have not had particularly close relations with India since their formation in 1991.
• Communicate on Security Issues: It also matters for maintaining communication with major actors in the region on common security issues.
• Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS): An important permanent structure within the SCO that assists members in the preparation and staging of counter-terrorism exercises, analyzes key intelligence information coming in from the member states, and shares information on terrorist movements and drug trafficking.

India’s Concerns with SCO

Although the SCO provides significant economic opportunities to India, its internal contradictions are a cause for concern.

• Difficulty in Managing ties: India shares tense relationships with China and Pakistan at present. Last year, when the summit was to be held under India’s presidency as part of the rotation, it decided to hold a virtual summit instead.
• Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): The New Delhi Declaration issued at the end of the leaders’ summit saw India refuse to sign off on a paragraph supporting the BRI.
• Reason for Disapproval: India’s opposition to the BRI comes from its constituent China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which is proposed to pass through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
• India sees it as a violation of its territorial integrity and sovereignty.

A painting created at least 51,200 years ago was discovered in the limestone cave of Leang Karampuang in the Maros-Pangkep region of the Indonesian island.

Leang Karampuang Cave:

• It is a limestone cave located on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.

Key findings:

• A scene of humans interacting with a pig painted on a cave wall is found in the cave.
• The scene, dominated by a representation of a pig that is standing upright along with three smaller human-like figures, is painted in a single shade of dark red pigment.
• One figure seems to be holding an object near the pig’s throat. Another is directly above the pig’s head in an upside-down position with legs splayed out.
• The third figure is larger and grander in appearance than the others; it is holding an unidentified object and is possibly wearing an elaborate headdress.
• This painting predates the cave paintings of Europe, which is at El Castillo in Spain, dating to about 40,800 years ago.
• The researchers interpreted the painting as a narrative scene, which they said would make it the oldest-known evidence of storytelling in art.
• The earliest Sulawesi rock art is not ''simple, it is quite advanced and shows the mental capacity of people at the time.

The Indo-Russian Rifles Private Limited (IRRPL), a joint venture between India and Russia, has successfully delivered 35,000 AK-203 Kalashnikov assault rifles to the Indian Army.

AK-203 Rifle:

• It is a modern firearm originating from Russia, designed by the renowned engineer Mikhail Kalashnikov between 2007 and 2010.
• It is a gas-operated, magazine-fed, select fire assault rifle.
• It is a version of the AK-200 rifle chambered for the 7.62x39mm cartridge used in the Indian Army.
• The weapon has the traditional advantages of Kalashnikov assault rifles: reliability and ease of maintenance.
• These AK-203 rifles are produced in India using proprietary Russian technologies and certified equipment, ensuring high product quality and adherence to specifications.
• It will be manufactured by Indo-Russian Rifles Private Limited (IRRPL).
• IRRPL is a joint venture between India and Russia, set up in 2019 to produce AK-203 rifles in the Korwa Ordnance Factory in Amethi district, Uttar Pradesh.
• The joint venture plans to ensure 100% localisation of the production of AK-203 rifles in India.
• India is the first country outside Russia which has started the production of the AK-200 series assault rifles.

Features of AK-203 Rifle:

Weighing 3.8 kg, this rifle measures between 880 and 940 mm in length with the stock extended, while its barrel is 415 mm long.

Its mechanism is based on a gas-operated action with a rotating bolt, allowing a firing rate of approximately 700 rounds per minute.

With an initial velocity of 715 m/s, the AK-203 offers an effective firing range between 400 and 800 meters, depending on sight adjustments.

The weapon is fed by a 30-round detachable box magazine, although a 50-round quad-column magazine can also be used for increased capacity.

It is equipped with adjustable iron sights, and picatinny rails allow the addition of various optical sighting systems.

The Union Minister for Coal and Mines recently launched the portal “Noble Initiative for Rewarding Mains Aspirants of National Civil Services Examination (NIRMAN)”.

NIRMAN Scheme:

• Noble Initiative for Rewarding Mains Aspirants of the National Civil Services Examination (NIRMAN) is a unique Corporate social responsibility (CSR) scheme by Coal India Limited (CIL) designed to support meritorious candidates from its operational districts.
• The NIRMAN scheme is tailored to provide financial assistance of ₹1,00,000 to candidates who have successfully cleared the preliminary round of the UPSC Civil Services and Forest Service Examinations in 2024.
• The eligible beneficiaries include those with an annual family income of less than ₹8 lakhs, and who are permanent residents of the 39 districts where CIL operates.
• This support extends to individuals from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), as well as femaleand third-gender candidates.
• The application process for NIRMAN is fully digital, facilitated through a dedicated portal.

Coal India Limited (CIL):

• It is a Govt of India owned Maharatna company.
• is the single largest coal producer in the world.
• It contributes to 85% of total domestic coal production and 75% of total coal-based generation.
• CIL contributes to 55% of total power generation and meets 40 % of the primary commercial energy requirements of the country.
• CIL functions through its subsidiaries in 84 mining areas spread over eight states in India.
• CIL has 313 mines (as of 1st April 2024), of which 131 are underground, 168 are opencast, and 14 are mixed mines.
• It operates Asia’s largest opencast coal mine at Gevra, Chhattisgarh.