Flash Floods in India: Causes, Climate Impact, and Adaptation Strategies

Flash floods have become a growing and deadly threat across India, causing significant loss of life and damage to infrastructure. Recent tragedies in Himachal Pradesh (July 2025), Wayanad in Kerala (July 2024), Ladakh (June 2024), and Sikkim (October 2023) illustrate the increasing frequency and intensity of such disasters. These events are primarily driven by intense rainfall and are becoming more common with global warming — rising from 132 incidents in 2020 to 184 in 2022, according to the Union Jal Shakti Ministry.

However, efforts to reduce the risks are hindered by a lack of detailed, region-specific data, which limits the effectiveness of early warning systems and targeted interventions.

New Research Maps India''s Flash Flood Vulnerability

A groundbreaking study by IIT Gandhinagar, published in Nature Hazards, seeks to fill the data gap by mapping flash flood susceptibility across India''s river basins. Titled “Drivers of Flash Floods in the Indian Sub-Continental River Basins,” the study identifies the Himalayas, western coast, and Central India as major hotspots.

Using hydrological and geomorphological analysis, the study reveals:

• In the Himalayas, steep slopes and elevation make areas highly prone to floods.
• In Central India and along the western coast, regions experience high "flashiness," meaning they respond quickly to rainfall with rapid runoff.

Importantly, 75% of flash floods occur when extreme rainfall coincides with already saturated soils — not from rainfall alone. Alarmingly, areas previously considered low-risk are now experiencing more extreme rain, suggesting that climate change is expanding flood-prone zones.

Primary Drivers of Flash Floods in India

Key findings on flash flood triggers include:

• Only 25% of flash floods are caused by rainfall alone.
• The majority result from a combination of intense rain and saturated soils, which prevents further water absorption and accelerates runoff.
• Prolonged periods of both light and heavy rainfall, rather than isolated intense downpours, are more likely to cause flash floods.
• Regional differences matter:
• Western coast & Central India respond rapidly due to high flashiness.
• Himalayan terrain increases vulnerability due to steep elevation.
• Within the Ganga basin, southern Himalayan sub-basins are more at risk than central ones.

This underscores how local geography and climate shape flash flood risks.

Climate Change: A Key Driver of Intensifying Flash Floods

The rise in flash flood events is closely linked to global warming:

• Warmer air holds more moisture — about 7% more for every 1°C increase, leading to heavier rainfall.
• Between 1981 and 2020, extreme rainfall:
• Doubled during the pre-monsoon season
• Increased by 56% during monsoon, 40% post-monsoon, and 12.5% in winter
• Over 75% of flash floods (1980–2018) occurred during the monsoon.

Since 1995, flood frequency has surged in major basins like the Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Krishna. Notably:

• 51% of previously non-prone sub-basins now report higher rainfall
• 66.5% show increased streamflow, indicating more runoff
• Some traditional flood-prone zones are witnessing decreased wet hours, signaling shifting flood risks

These changes reflect a complex reconfiguration of India''s flood landscape due to climate shifts.

Urgent Need for Region-Specific Adaptation Strategies

To address this evolving crisis, the study calls for localized adaptation strategies that consider regional topography, soil properties, and flood response patterns — rather than focusing solely on rainfall intensity.

Key recommendations include:

• Customized early warning systems
• Improved disaster preparedness based on local flood dynamics
• Investment in climate-resilient infrastructure
• Integrated land-use planning that aligns with new flood risk zones
• Monitoring of emerging flash flood hotspots due to climate variability

Kaziranga''s Grassland Bird Census: A Conservation Breakthrough

The census in Kaziranga, where over 70% of the landscape comprises grasslands, was a joint effort by forest officials, researchers, and conservationists. It was inspired by the work of Chiranjib Bora, a PhD scholar focused on the endangered Black-breasted Parrotbill. His research, funded by the INSPIRE Fellowship (Department of Science & Technology), laid the foundation for this initiative.

Key highlights of the census:

• Focused on 10 priority species, many globally threatened or endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplains.
• Species recorded include the Bengal Florican, Swamp Francolin, and Finn’s Weaver.
• In total, 43 species were documented, including:
• 1 Critically Endangered
• 2 Endangered
• 6 Vulnerable species (IUCN Red List)

The survey aimed to gather critical data on rare, camouflaged species that are difficult to detect through traditional methods.

Acoustic Monitoring: A Game-Changer in Avian Research

One of the most innovative aspects of the Kaziranga survey was its use of passive acoustic monitoring — a method particularly suited to detecting elusive and quiet birds.

• Methodology:
• Audio recorders were placed on tall trees across 29 locations during the breeding season (March to May).
• Recordings spanned three days at each site, capturing vocalizations when birds are most active.
• Spectrograms (visual sound representations) and the BirdNet AI tool were used to identify bird species based on their calls.

This technique proved far more effective than traditional visual counts, revealing bird presence that would otherwise go unnoticed.

Ecological Significance: Grassland Birds as Environmental Sentinels

The findings highlight the critical role grassland birds play in assessing ecosystem health. Their presence confirms that Kaziranga’s grasslands remain ecologically vibrant.

A standout discovery was a breeding colony of the endangered Finn’s Weaver, with over 85 nests found atop trees — the first time this behavior has been documented in detail. This breakthrough enhances understanding of the species and strengthens targeted conservation efforts.

Mounting Threats to Grassland Habitats

Despite the positive outcomes, Kaziranga’s grassland birds face mounting threats:

• 70% of Assam’s grasslands have vanished over the past four decades.
• Major pressures include:
• Overgrazing
• Conversion to agriculture
• Ecological succession, where grasslands naturally turn into forests
• Climate change further worsens the situation, especially for sensitive species like the Bengal Florican, which is experiencing rapid decline.

The loss of habitat is particularly devastating for Northeast India’s endemic species, whose extinction in this region means extinction globally.

Looking Ahead: The Need for Targeted Conservation

Kaziranga’s bird census demonstrates the value of scientific innovation and collaborative conservation. Moving forward, India must adopt:

• Region-specific habitat management
• Advanced monitoring technologies
• Community engagement in conservation
• Robust policy frameworks to protect grassland ecosystems

The success of Kaziranga’s acoustic bird survey is a reminder that technology, research, and political will can together pave the way for a more resilient future for India''s grassland birds.

India Reconsiders China Investment Restrictions to Strengthen Tech Manufacturing

India is signalling a strategic recalibration of its stance on Chinese investments in electronics manufacturing, as it seeks to boost domestic production and integrate more deeply into global supply chains.

Introduction: From Border Clashes to Policy Shift

Nearly five years after imposing restrictions on Chinese investment in response to the 2020 Galwan Valley clashes, India is now reassessing its protectionist approach. With aspirations to emerge as a global electronics manufacturing hub, the Indian government is reviewing FDI regulations that previously blocked China-based firms from participating in the sector.

This shift reflects changing geopolitical dynamics, the need for technological self-reliance, and the recognition that Chinese firms remain key suppliers of upstream components essential for high-tech production.

Backdrop: The 2020 FDI Blockade

In April 2020, the Indian government issued Press Note 3, requiring government clearance for all foreign direct investment from countries sharing a land border with India—effectively targeting China. The aim was to prevent opportunistic acquisitions of Indian firms during the pandemic and to assert economic sovereignty following border tensions.

This policy led to the exclusion of Chinese players from critical sectors such as telecommunications, infrastructure, and electronic hardware, even as India’s own electronics sector grew rapidly under Production Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes.

Signs of a Policy Recalibration

India is now displaying pragmatic flexibility as its manufacturing goals outpace domestic capabilities in certain high-tech segments.

• Key Developments:

• Dixon Technologies, a leading Indian contract manufacturer, received approval to form a joint venture with China-based Longcheer, aimed at producing smartphones, AI-powered PCs, and automotive electronics.
• NITI Aayog has recommended relaxing FDI restrictions for Chinese firms to attract critical investment and boost exports.
• The Economic Survey 2023–24 acknowledged the need to revisit blanket bans on Chinese firms, recognizing their role in global electronics supply chains.

Persistent Dependence on Chinese Components

Despite curbs on investment, China continues to dominate India''s electronics component imports:

• In FY 2023–24, India imported:
• $12+ billion in electronic parts from mainland China
• $6 billion from Hong Kong
• Combined, China and Hong Kong account for over 50% of India’s total component imports — dwarfing inflows from Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, and ASEAN nations.

This underlines a structural dependency: while India has restricted finished goods like Chinese smartphones, it remains heavily reliant on Chinese-origin inputs to support its fast-expanding electronics assembly operations.

Strategic Drivers Behind the Rethink

1. Manufacturing Aspirations

India’s ambition to become a top-tier electronics manufacturer under schemes like the ₹23,000 crore component manufacturing incentive requires global collaboration. Chinese technical know-how in electronics manufacturing remains unmatched in some segments.

2. Global Supply Chain Realignment

In the wake of COVID-19 disruptions and U.S.-China trade tensions, global manufacturers are embracing the “China+1” strategy — diversifying production beyond China. India sees an opening to position itself as a viable alternative, but success hinges on access to Chinese technology and inputs.

3. Geopolitical Realism

Recent diplomatic signals suggest a thaw in relations:

• Tourist visas for Chinese nationals have resumed.
• High-level diplomatic exchanges have been held, including Foreign Minister S. Jaishankar’s visit to China, where he emphasized that "competition should not become conflict."

Ongoing Challenges and Strategic Dilemmas

Despite efforts to recalibrate, several frictions persist:

• Chinese retaliation: Beijing has restricted the deployment of Chinese workers in Indian projects and imposed export controls on rare earths and magnets — vital for electronics production.
• Compliance hurdles: Chinese companies in India continue to face delays, security vetting, and procedural roadblocks.
• Balancing act: India must manage a delicate trade-off — ensuring strategic autonomy while acknowledging its dependence on Chinese supply chains to scale up manufacturing.

Conclusion: A Pragmatic Pivot

India’s evolving policy reflects pragmatism over isolationism. While national security remains a priority, the country is increasingly aware that excluding Chinese firms entirely could undermine its industrial and export ambitions.

Carefully targeted engagement, tighter compliance controls, and sector-specific partnerships could allow India to benefit from Chinese capabilities while maintaining strategic oversight — a middle path that may prove essential to realizing its tech manufacturing goals.

Tsunamis: Causes, Characteristics, Impacts, and Early Warning Systems

Context

A powerful 8.8 magnitude earthquake recently struck Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, triggering a tsunami that impacted coastal regions in Russia and Japan, with alerts issued as far away as Hawaii and New Zealand. This event highlights the ongoing threat posed by tsunamis and the need for efficient monitoring and response mechanisms.

What Is a Tsunami?

A tsunami is a series of powerful sea waves caused by sudden disturbances in the ocean floor, such as underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. These waves travel at high speeds across oceans and can cause widespread destruction when they reach the coast.

How Tsunamis Form

1. Seafloor Disturbance

• A sudden geological event—like an earthquake—shifts the seabed vertically.
• This displacement lifts or lowers a massive volume of water, initiating wave energy that radiates outward.

2. Wave Generation

• The disturbance creates long-wavelength waves that move in all directions.
• In deep oceans, they travel at jet-like speeds (800–900 km/h) but have low wave height (30–50 cm), making them barely detectable.

3. Drawback Effect

• As the tsunami nears land, the trough may reach shore first, drawing water away and exposing the seabed.
• This sudden sea retreat is often misinterpreted as low tide, leaving people vulnerable to the incoming wave.

4. Wave Amplification

• In shallower waters, the wave slows down due to seafloor friction.
• This causes the wave to compress, increasing its height rapidly—often rising from 1 metre to over 10 metres.

5. Coastal Impact

• The towering wave slams into the coast with immense force.
• It can flood several kilometres inland, destroying infrastructure, uprooting trees, and sweeping away people and vehicles.
• Retreating waves drag debris and survivors back into the sea, adding to the destruction.

Key Characteristics of Tsunamis

• Long Wavelengths: Can span up to 200 km between wave crests.
• High Speed, Low Height in Open Ocean: Travel at 800–900 km/h with little visible height at sea.
• Multiple Waves: Tsunamis usually arrive in a series, with the first wave not necessarily the most powerful.
• Invisibility in Deep Water: Ships at sea may not even notice a tsunami passing beneath them.

Impacts of Tsunamis

1. Human Loss and Health Risks

• Tsunamis often result in mass casualties. For instance, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami claimed thousands of lives.
• Victims often suffer from drowning, trauma injuries, and post-disaster illnesses.

2. Infrastructure Damage

• Coastal cities, ports, bridges, power plants, and communication systems can be severely damaged or destroyed.
• Economic recovery is often slow due to the collapse of key services and supply chains.

3. Environmental Damage

• Saltwater inundation harms agriculture and freshwater ecosystems.
• Coastal habitats are destroyed, and debris spreads across both land and ocean.

4. Service Disruption

• Vital services like electricity, water, transport, and telecommunications may be disabled, hindering rescue efforts.

5. Secondary Hazards

• Tsunamis can trigger fires, chemical spills, and landslides, worsening the impact and complicating recovery efforts.

Tsunami Early Warning Systems

• India’s Early Warning Framework

Managed by INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services):

• Seismic Monitoring: Detects global earthquakes within 10 minutes, identifying tsunami-generating ones.
• DART Buoys (BPRs): Bottom Pressure Recorders track deep-sea pressure changes in real-time.
• Tide Gauges: Confirm wave arrival and measure height at the coast.
• Alert Dissemination: Warnings sent to NDMA, media, and public via SMS, sirens, satellites, and radio.

• Global Tsunami Monitoring

Coordinated by IOC-UNESCO and regional centers like:

• Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC)
• Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

Key technologies include:

• Global Seismic Networks: Provide real-time earthquake data.
• DART Systems & Tide Gauges: Confirm tsunami formation.
• Satellite & Radar Altimetry: Detect anomalies in sea level and wave behavior.

Conclusion

Though rare, tsunamis are among the most devastating natural disasters, capable of causing massive loss of life and infrastructure damage. Timely detection and effective early warning systems are essential to mitigate risks. India’s robust monitoring network and collaboration with international warning centers play a crucial role in protecting vulnerable coastal communities.

Adopt Formalisation to Drive Productivity in Indian Manufacturing

Context

A recent analysis of Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) data from 1999 to 2019 reveals a concerning trend in India’s formal manufacturing sector: contractual labour use has doubled, rising from 20% to 40.7%. However, this shift is largely motivated by cost-cutting rather than enhancing flexibility or skills, undermining long-term productivity growth.

Core Problem: Informalisation Within the Formal Sector

While labelled “formal,” India’s manufacturing sector is increasingly relying on informal practices—especially through excessive contract labour. This practice is not aligned with productivity goals, but instead focuses on circumventing labour laws and reducing wages.

Key Insights from the Study

1. Surge in Contractual Labour

• Share of contract workers in manufacturing rose to 40.7% by 2022–23.
• This trend spans across all sub-sectors, including large enterprises.

2. Wage Disparities and Cost Advantages

• On average, contract workers earn 14.47% less than regular employees.
• In large firms, the wage gap reaches 31%, reducing overall labour costs by 24% for contract-heavy operations.

3. Sharp Productivity Gaps

• Firms heavily reliant on contract labour show 31% lower productivity than those with regular workers.
• In small, labour-intensive firms, the gap widens to 42%.
• Minor productivity gains (5–20%) are observed only in high-skill or capital-intensive sectors with limited contract use.

4. High Turnover, Low Skill Development

• Short-term contracts lead to frequent attrition, discouraging employers from investing in training or innovation—further limiting productivity.

Structural Issues Undermining Formalisation

• Misaligned Incentives: Contractors often lack a stake in workforce development, leading to poor alignment between employer and contractor objectives.
• Decline in Work Discipline and Output Quality: Temporary employment reduces worker accountability, increasing risks of low performance and quality lapses—classic moral hazard issues.
• Avoidance of Legal Protections: Contractual hiring is frequently used to bypass the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, avoiding obligations related to retrenchment, layoff protections, and dispute resolution.
• Disincentives for Training and Innovation: Constant churn in the workforce reduces incentives to upskill or improve workplace practices.
• Gaps in Social Security: Many contract workers are excluded from social protections like EPF, ESI, and maternity benefits, reinforcing economic vulnerability and informalisation.

Regulatory and Policy Challenges

1. Delay in Labour Code Implementation

• The Industrial Relations Code, 2020, designed to formalise short-term hiring, is still awaiting adoption at the state level, stalling reform.

2. Risks of Precarity

• While promoting hiring flexibility, the new codes risk institutionalising job insecurity if not backed by strong enforcement mechanisms.

3. Union Resistance

• Labour unions oppose liberal hiring policies, fearing erosion of collective bargaining, which has led to political and legal pushback.

4. Withdrawal of PMRPY Incentives

• The Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana (PMRPY), which encouraged formal hiring by subsidising EPF contributions (2016–2022), ended prematurely, before formalisation gains were consolidated.

5. Weak Contract Regulation

• Labour inspections—especially in MSMEs—remain inadequate, allowing unregulated use of contract labour without accountability.

Policy Recommendations

1. Careful Labour Code Implementation

• Ensure fixed-term contracts provide essential benefits and protections to avoid disguised informalisation.

2. Encourage Longer Tenures

• Offer incentives like EPF subsidies or preferential access to government contracts for firms using longer-duration contracts.

3. Revive and Improve PMRPY

• Reinstate the scheme with stronger accountability and tracking mechanisms to ensure it genuinely supports formalisation.

4. Link Formalisation with Skilling

• Provide subsidised access to skilling initiatives (e.g. PMKVY) only to firms that demonstrate formal and stable employment practices.

5. Regulate Contract Labour Use

• Impose productivity-linked penalties or audits if contract labour exceeds set thresholds, particularly in low-skill sectors.

Conclusion

The increasing reliance on cost-driven contract labour is eroding productivity, innovation, and industrial stability in India’s manufacturing sector. To support sustainable growth and global competitiveness, India must:

• Embrace genuine formalisation,
• Promote skill-based, long-term employment, and
• Ensure a balanced approach that combines flexibility with job quality and social protections.

Only then can India realise its manufacturing potential and generate inclusive, productive employment at scale.

IMF Raises India’s Growth Forecast to 6.4%: A Sign of Economic Resilience

Context

In its July 2025 World Economic Outlook (WEO) Update, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has revised India’s GDP growth forecast upward to 6.4% for both FY2025–26 and FY2026–27, reaffirming India''s position as the fastest-growing major economy in the world.

About the IMF Forecast Update

• The World Economic Outlook is the IMF’s key report offering macroeconomic projections for countries and global regions.
• In the July 2025 update, India’s growth outlook was:
• Raised by 20 basis points for FY2025–26 (from 6.2% to 6.4%)
• Increased by 10 basis points for FY2026–27 (from 6.3% to 6.4%)

India’s Growth Trajectory: Key Highlights

• Forecasted GDP growth:
• 6.4% for both FY2026 and FY2027
• In calendar-year terms: 6.7% for 2025, 6.4% for 2026
• Drivers behind the upward revision:
• Declining inflation, especially from lower food prices
• Improved external conditions, including lower global uncertainty
• Relaxation of import tariffs and eased financial conditions
• Sustained momentum in economic reforms and public investment, particularly in infrastructure
• Global comparison:
• IMF projects global growth at 3.0% (2025) and 3.1% (2026), placing India well above the global average

Significance of the Forecast for India

• Macroeconomic Confidence:
• Highlights India’s economic stability amid global volatility
• Policy Validation:
• Endorses the government’s reform-focused approach, including spending on infrastructure, digitalisation, and human capital
• Investor Attraction:
• Enhances investor confidence, encouraging foreign capital inflows and boosting India’s global credit image
• Strategic Planning Tool:
• Provides a supportive macro backdrop for shaping the Union Budget, NITI Aayog’s Vision 2047, and other long-term growth frameworks

Conclusion

The IMF’s upward revision of India’s growth forecast to 6.4% reflects strong macroeconomic fundamentals, a resilient policy framework, and the country’s growing role in the global economy. As India aims for long-term transformation, such projections offer both validation and opportunity for continued reform and investment.

Standing Committee Report on Fund Devolution to Rural Local Bodies (RLBs)

Background

Rural Local Bodies (RLBs), the grassroots institutions under the Panchayati Raj system, receive financial support based on recommendations of the Central Finance Commissions, empowered by Article 280 of the Indian Constitution. These funds are crucial for enabling fiscal decentralisation, as envisaged under the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

Key Concerns Raised by the Parliamentary Committee

1. Decline in Fund Allocations

• There has been a steady reduction in central financial support to RLBs.
• This undermines the principle of decentralised governance and weakens Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) as autonomous bodies.

2. Cuts in Untied and Scheme-Based Transfers

• Untied grants, which give PRIs flexibility to address local needs, have been shrinking.
• Reduced scheme-based transfers limit the capacity of PRIs to deliver development programs, eroding their effectiveness and credibility.

3. Incomplete Devolution of the 3Fs

• Transfer of Functions, Funds, and Functionaries (3Fs) to PRIs remains partial and inconsistent across states, weakening their autonomy and functionality.

4. Delays in Constituting State Finance Commissions (SFCs)

• Several states have not constituted or implemented recommendations of key SFCs (e.g., 3rd, 4th, or 5th SFCs), hampering equitable fund distribution.

5. Audit and Oversight Gaps

• Slow audit processes and delays in Action Taken Reports (ATRs) continue to affect accountability.
• States like Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh were specifically noted for poor compliance.

Reasons Behind Funding Reductions (2021–22 to 2024–25)

1. Absence of Elected Bodies: Lack of elections to RLBs leads to disqualification from receiving funds.
2. Failure to Upload Development Plans: States not uploading plans on the prescribed platforms face disbursement issues.
3. Non-Integration with eGramSwaraj Portal: Not using the mandated digital platform for planning and accounting results in delayed transactions.
4. Non-Compliance with Audit Norms: Inadequate auditing and reporting lead to penal reductions in allocations.
5. Inaction on SFC Recommendations: Delays in implementing or even constituting SFCs hinder structured devolution.

Key Recommendations of the Committee

• Ensure Adequate and Transparent Funding:
• Allocate untied and performance-linked funds.
• Develop mechanisms to ring-fence resources, prevent diversion, and strengthen transparency and accountability.
• Urgent Constitution of SFCs:
• The Central Government must push states to constitute SFCs promptly to avoid disruptions in fund flow.
• State-Level Devolution Roadmaps:
• Every state should publish a clear, time-bound plan for devolving powers, functions, and financial authority to PRIs.

Breakdown of XV Finance Commission Grants to RLBs

Conclusion

The report highlights that India’s commitment to decentralised rural governance is being undermined by declining fiscal support, incomplete devolution, and poor compliance by states. Strengthening Panchayati Raj Institutions requires a coordinated effort between the Centre and States to ensure timely fund allocation, structural reforms, and digital compliance, empowering RLBs to function as true vehicles of grassroots democracy and development.

CEC Report on Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management

Context

The Central Empowered Committee (CEC)—a body constituted by the Supreme Court of India for environmental oversight—has submitted a report evaluating the implementation of Compensatory Afforestation (CA) across India.

• Key Highlight

• Between 2019–20 and 2023–24, India achieved 85% of its overall Compensatory Afforestation target.

What is Compensatory Afforestation (CA)?

• Definition: Afforestation undertaken as compensation for diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes such as infrastructure, industry, or mining, as mandated under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.

About the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016

• Legal Origin: Emerged from the Supreme Court’s judgment in T.N. Godavarman v. Union of India (1995).
• CAMPA Formation: The Act established the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) at both national and state levels.
• Fund Management:
• CA funds are deposited in the Public Accounts of India and States.
• Utilised exclusively for afforestation, wildlife protection, and forest-related activities.

Issues Identified by the CEC

1. Delay in Annual Plan of Operations (APOs):
• Late or irregular submission of APOs slows the release and utilisation of funds.
2. Redundant Approval Processes:
• Even after clearance by the National CAMPA Authority, states often require multiple internal approvals, causing unnecessary delays.
3. Understaffed CAMPA Offices:
• Inadequate manpower at state CAMPA offices hampers effective planning, execution, and reporting.
4. Monitoring Gaps:
• Absence of consistent oversight mechanisms weakens implementation.
5. Misuse and Diversion of Funds:
• Instances where CA funds were used for purposes not directly related to afforestation or conservation.

Key Recommendations of the CEC

1. Strengthen Institutional Mechanisms

• The Governing Body, Steering Committee, and Executive Committee at the state level should convene regularly to ensure timely decisions and coordinated implementation.

2. Improve Monitoring and Transparency

• Mandate the use of geo-tagging for CA project sites.
• Ensure online disclosure of afforestation activities through platforms like:
• e-Green Watch
• PARIVESH 2.0 (environmental clearance portal)

3. Other Recommendations

• Streamline Fund Flow: Simplify procedures for the disbursement of CA funds to reduce bureaucratic hurdles.
• Timely Submission of APOs: Create mechanisms and deadlines for states to submit Annual Plans without delay.
• Capacity Building: Strengthen CAMPA offices with adequate staffing and technical expertise.

Conclusion

While significant progress has been made in meeting afforestation targets, the CEC underscores the need for systemic reforms, stronger institutional support, and transparent digital monitoring. Efficient and accountable management of CA funds is essential for achieving sustainable forest restoration and ecological balance amid growing development pressures.

Exercise Divya Drishti: Showcasing Indian Army’s High-Tech Preparedness

Overview

• Exercise Divya Drishti was recently conducted by the Indian Army in the high-altitude terrain of East Sikkim.
• The exercise aimed to test and demonstrate advanced battlefield technologies under realistic conditions.

• Key Objectives
• Evaluate the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and cutting-edge surveillance tools in live military scenarios.
• Improve real-time situational awareness, battlefield communication, and sensor-to-shooter efficiency.

Highlights

• Conducted by troops of the Trishakti Corps, headquartered at Sukna, near Siliguri.
• Integrated use of ground-based systems, aerial surveillance platforms like drones and UAVs, to simulate combat environments.
• Featured AI-powered sensors linked with advanced, secure communication networks for rapid data sharing and decision-making.
• The exercise assessed the Army’s readiness to incorporate modern technologies in combat scenarios, enhancing overall operational capability.

Bigha: Traditional Land Measurement in India and Beyond

What is a Bigha?

• A bigha is a traditional unit of land measurement widely used across India, Bangladesh, and Nepal.
• Commonly employed in agriculture and land transactions, especially in rural and farming regions.

Usage in India

• Still prevalent in many states including Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and others.
• Despite the introduction of modern units like acre or hectare, bigha remains popular for measuring large agricultural plots and negotiating land prices.
• Variation Across States

• No uniform standard—size varies significantly between regions:
• West Bengal/Assam: ~14,400 sq. ft.
• Punjab: ~9,070 sq. ft.
• 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. (for comparison)

• Subdivisions

• A bigha is often divided into smaller units such as:
• Biswa
• Katha
• Nalli (varies by region)

Historical Context

• Originates from ancient South Asian practices of measuring land for farming, taxation, and trade.
• Deeply embedded in the socio-economic framework of rural India.

Bigha Outside India

• Bangladesh: Standardized during British rule at 14,400 sq. ft. (1,340 sq. m).
• Nepal: A bigha is approximately 6,772.63 sq. m, with regional differences.

Recent Context

• The Assam government launched an eviction drive in Golaghat district’s Uriamghat area, reclaiming around 11,000 bighas of encroached forest land.

Mansa Devi Temple

Recently, a tragic stampede occurred near the Mansa Devi temple in Haridwar, Uttarakhand, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals and injuries to 28 others.

About Mansa Devi Temple:

·       The temple is a Hindu shrine dedicated to the goddess Mansa Devi, who is regarded as a form of Shakti, or Goddess Durga. It is situated in the city of Haridwar, located atop Bilwa Parvat, part of the Sivalik Hills, which form the southernmost range of the Himalayas. Also known as Bilwa Tirth, the temple is one of the five pilgrimage sites known as Panch Tirth within Haridwar. It stands as a significant symbol of the ancient tradition of Shakti worship in northern India.

·       The current main structure of the temple was constructed between 1811 and 1815 by Maharaja Gopal Singh of Manimajra. The entire temple complex spans approximately 100 acres and is built in the traditional North Indian architectural style. The temple houses two primary deities: Mansa Devi and her sister, Chandi Devi.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A 27-year-old suspect involved in a recent deadly shooting at the NFL headquarters in New York City reportedly left a multi-page suicide note attributing his actions, in part, to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).

About Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy:

CTE is a degenerative brain disorder caused by repeated head injuries. It leads to the progressive death of nerve cells in the brain, a process called degeneration. The condition is most commonly observed in athletes participating in contact sports such as American football, boxing, and hockey, as well as military veterans exposed to blast injuries. CTE typically manifests years after repeated brain trauma and worsens over time.

Symptoms:

• Early symptoms may be subtle or unnoticed, including depression, suicidal ideation, aggression, mood swings, and changes in personality.
• As the disease progresses, individuals may experience confusion, memory loss, and difficulties with planning and decision-making.
• In advanced stages, patients may develop problems with movement.

Treatment:
Currently, there is no cure for CTE. However, medications and other supportive therapies can help manage symptoms.

International Tiger Day 2025

On July 29, India joined 12 other nations to observe International Tiger Day 2025, a global event aimed at raising awareness about tiger conservation.

About International Tiger Day:

Observed annually on July 29, this day serves as a platform to highlight the importance of tiger conservation. It promotes global efforts to protect tigers and their natural habitats and encourages coexistence between humans and tigers.

Theme for 2025:

“Securing the future of Tigers with Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities at the heart.”

History:
International Tiger Day, also known as Global Tiger Day, was established during the 2010 Saint Petersburg Tiger Summit in Russia. The summit convened representatives from 13 tiger-range countries, including India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Malaysia, and Russia. The urgency arose due to reports that only about 3,000 tigers remained in the wild worldwide. The countries adopted the “Tx2” goal at the summit, which aimed to double the global tiger population by 2022 through enhanced conservation measures and stronger legal protections. July 29 was selected as International Tiger Day because it marks the midpoint between the first and last days of the Saint Petersburg Summit and symbolizes the ongoing global campaign to save tigers.

Tiger Population in India:

India now hosts the largest wild tiger population in the world. Despite having only 18% of the global tiger habitat and the highest human population density among tiger-range nations, India accounts for 75% of the world’s wild tigers. More than 3,600 tigers currently inhabit the country’s forests—double the number recorded just over ten years ago. These tigers live across approximately 138,200 square kilometers of forested land, roughly half the size of the United Kingdom, often sharing space with nearly 60 million people. This success is attributed to decades of concerted conservation efforts, particularly through the national program known as Project Tiger.

Setubandha Scholar Scheme

The Setubandha Scholar Scheme offers students trained in traditional gurukuls a unique opportunity to earn recognized qualifications and receive substantial scholarships for research at leading IITs.

About the Scheme:

This is India’s first national-level initiative aimed at formally integrating scholars from traditional educational backgrounds into the research ecosystem of IITs, without the prerequisite of conventional academic degrees. The program seeks to connect India’s ancient gurukul tradition with contemporary scientific and academic research.

The scheme is supported by the Ministry of Education and implemented by the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) division of the Central Sanskrit University (CSU). It provides fellowships up to Rs 65,000 per month across 18 interdisciplinary fields, ranging from Ayurveda, cognitive science, architecture, political theory, and grammar to strategic studies, performing arts, mathematics, physics, and health sciences.

Eligibility Criteria:

• Applicants must have undergone a minimum of five years of rigorous study at a recognized gurukul.
• They must demonstrate excellence in Shastras or traditional knowledge.
• The maximum age limit to apply is 32 years.

Fellowship Details:

• Category 1 scholars (equivalent to postgraduate level) receive a monthly fellowship of Rs 40,000 along with an annual research grant of Rs 1 lakh.
• Category 2 scholars (equivalent to PhD level) are awarded Rs 65,000 per month and an annual grant of Rs 2 lakh.

This scheme marks a significant shift in India’s education policy by opening advanced research opportunities to scholars from non-formal, classical learning backgrounds.

Mera Gaon Meri Dharohar Initiative

The Central government has documented the cultural heritage of over 4.7 lakh villages under the ‘Mera Gaon Meri Dharohar’ (MGMD) initiative to date.

About the Initiative:

MGMD is a nationwide program launched by the Ministry of Culture on July 27, 2023, under the National Mission on Cultural Mapping. It was introduced as part of the ‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav’ celebrations.

The primary goal is to create a comprehensive virtual cultural map of India’s 6.5 lakh villages spread across all states and Union Territories. The project aims to promote appreciation of India’s diverse cultures and traditions, fostering economic growth, social harmony, and artistic development in rural areas. The initiative focuses on mapping India’s intangible cultural heritage.

Implementation:
The program is managed by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) under the National Mission on Cultural Mapping (NMCM).

Categories of Data Collection under MGMD:

• Arts and Crafts Village
• Ecologically Oriented Village
• Scholastic Village (linked to India’s textual and scriptural traditions)
• Epic Village (connected to Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranic legends, and oral epics)
• Historical Village (associated with local and national history)
• Architectural Heritage Village
• Other distinctive types such as fishing villages, horticulture villages, shepherding villages, etc.

Pralay Missile

The Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) recently conducted two successful consecutive flight tests of the Pralay missile from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island, located off the coast of Odisha.

About Pralay Missile:

Pralay is an indigenously developed quasi-ballistic missile that uses advanced guidance and navigation systems to achieve high precision.

Key Features:

• It is a solid propellant quasi-ballistic missile capable of carrying various types of warheads.
• The missile has a range of 150 to 500 kilometers and can be launched from mobile launchers.
• Its payload capacity ranges between 500 to 1,000 kilograms, with the ability to carry conventional warheads.
• The missile’s guidance system achieves a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of less than 10 meters, ensuring high accuracy.
• It can reach terminal speeds up to Mach 6.1 and is designed to engage strategic targets such as radar installations, command centers, and airstrips.
• Pralay possesses the ability to alter its flight path midair after covering a certain distance.

Development and Partnerships:

The missile was developed primarily by the Research Centre Imarat in collaboration with other DRDO laboratories. Key industry partners include Bharat Dynamics Limited, Bharat Electronics Limited, and various other industries and Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).

N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)

Recent Regulatory Action:

The Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has directed drug controllers across all states and Union Territories to instruct manufacturers to monitor the presence of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a potentially carcinogenic chemical, in the antacid drug Ranitidine.

About NDMA:

NDMA is a volatile organic chemical commonly found in the environment due to its easy formation from frequently occurring precursor substances. It is classified as a probable human carcinogen based on animal studies.

Formation:
NDMA forms when a secondary or tertiary amine reacts with a nitrite ion under acidic conditions.

Characteristics of NDMA:

• Appearance: Yellow, odorless liquid.
• Historical Use: Previously utilized in the production of rocket fuel.
• Production Byproduct: It emerges as a byproduct in various manufacturing processes and water chlorination.
• Stability: Breaks down when exposed to sunlight.

Applications:
Historically, NDMA was commercially used to produce rocket fuel, antioxidants, copolymer softeners, and lubricant additives.

Exposure to NDMA:

People are generally exposed to small amounts of NDMA through the environment, food, and water. Certain chemicals in food and water, such as nitrosamines and alkylamines, can convert into NDMA within the acidic environment of the stomach. NDMA is also generated during the processing of foods and drinks. Common dietary sources include cured meats (especially bacon), beer, fish, cheese, and some vegetables. Additionally, exposure can occur through contaminated medications.

Education Minister Issues Letters of Intent (LoIs) to Four Foreign Universities

Context:
To commemorate five years of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, the Union Education Minister issued Letters of Intent (LoIs) to four foreign universities authorizing them to establish campuses in India.

Details:

• Issuing Authority: The Ministry of Education, under the leadership of Dharmendra Pradhan, issued the LoIs during the Akhil Bharatiya Shiksha Samagam 2025.
• Universities and Locations:
• Western Sydney University – Greater Noida
• Victoria University – Noida
• La Trobe University – Bengaluru
• University of Bristol – Mumbai (from 2026)

Programs Offered:

• Degrees in business, artificial intelligence, logistics, cybersecurity, health, and public policy.
• Joint Ph.D. academy.
• 3+1 pathway integrating undergraduate and postgraduate education.

Alignment with NEP:

• Supports the NEP’s objective of internationalizing Indian higher education.
• Emphasizes multidisciplinary learning, innovation, and global partnerships.

About Letter of Intent (LoI):

• A LoI is a formal document indicating the intention of two parties to enter into a partnership or agreement, preceding a legally binding contract.
• Key Characteristics:
• Non-binding but provides directional clarity.
• Outlines scope including purpose, timeline, responsibilities, and goals.
• Facilitates negotiations and reduces ambiguity during formal contract drafting.
• Use in Academia:
• Demonstrates institutional commitment.
• Serves as a blueprint for collaboration in joint research, curriculum sharing, and faculty/student exchanges

Mount Cilo

Context:
Glaciers on Mount Cilo in southeastern Turkey have lost nearly half of their ice cover over the past 40 years, with climate change and heatwaves accelerating the rate of melting.

Location:

• Mount Cilo is the second-highest peak in Turkey, reaching 4,135 meters at its summit known as Reşko (also called Gelyaşin or Uludoruk).
• It is located in the Yüksekova district of Hakkâri Province, near the Iraq border, within the East Taurus Mountains (Doğu Toroslar) of Eastern Anatolia.

Physical Features:

• The massif stretches 30 km in length and forms the western part of the Cilo-Sat Mountains National Park, declared in 2020.
• The terrain is rugged, featuring sharp ridges, steep limestone cliffs, deep gorges, and glacial valleys.
• Nearby is Suppa Durek (Erinç Tepe), Turkey’s third-highest peak at 4,116 meters.

Glacial Retreat:

• There has been rapid loss of glaciers attributed to global warming. Visible effects include ice blocks breaking into streams and retreating ice sheets.
• Experts report that about 50% of the continuous snow and ice cover has disappeared since the 1980s.
• Melting glaciers now cause increased torrent flows and waterfalls, altering local water cycles.

Climate Extremes:

• Turkey is experiencing rising temperatures and more frequent heatwaves combined with reduced rainfall.
• Silopi, located about 200 km from Mount Cilo, recorded a historic temperature of 50.5°C in July 2025, the highest ever in Turkey.
• United Nations projections warn that by 2100, the region may face a 30% reduction in rainfall and a temperature increase of 5–6°C.

Operation ShivShakti

Context:
The Indian Army successfully eliminated two terrorists attempting to infiltrate across the Line of Control (LoC) in the Poonch district. This operation took place shortly after the neutralisation of three Lashkar-e-Taiba militants during Operation Mahadev.

About Operation ShivShakti:

• Definition: Operation ShivShakti is a counter-infiltration mission initiated by the Indian Army aimed at preventing terrorists from crossing the LoC into Jammu and Kashmir.
• Command and Coordination: The operation is conducted by the Indian Army’s White Knight Corps in close coordination with the Jammu & Kashmir Police (JKP). It is based on precise intelligence inputs obtained through multi-agency collaboration.
• Location: The mission was executed in the Degwar sector of Poonch district, specifically near Maldivalan—a highly sensitive area known for frequent infiltration attempts along the LoC.
• Primary Objective: To thwart cross-border terrorism by detecting, intercepting, and neutralising infiltrators before they can reach civilian zones or damage infrastructure.
• Operational Details:
• The mission utilized swift and precise firepower to minimise response time.
• Three weapons were recovered from the terrorists, indicating their readiness for a high-intensity conflict.
• The operation was intelligence-driven, involving synchronised inputs from Army intelligence and Jammu & Kashmir Police, demonstrating effective multi-agency cooperation.
• Search and cordon operations are ongoing in the area to locate any additional threats.

Discovery of a New Human Blood Group — CRIB

Context:
A new human blood group antigen named CRIB has been discovered at the Rotary Bangalore TTK Blood Centre. This is the first global identification of this antigen, officially recognised by the International Blood Group Reference Laboratory (IBGRL), UK.

About the CRIB Blood Group:

• What is CRIB?

CRIB stands for Cromer India Bengaluru. It is a newly identified antigen within the Cromer (CR) blood group system that had not been observed in any human sample worldwide until now.

• Discovery:
  The antigen was found in a 38-year-old South Indian woman undergoing cardiac surgery in Kolar, Karnataka.
• Her blood showed panreactivity, meaning it reacted with all tested blood samples and was incompatible even with O+ blood.
• No compatible donor was found among 20 family members.
• The sample was sent to IBGRL in the UK, where after 10 months of molecular testing, the new antigen was confirmed and officially named CRIB.
• Scientific Importance:
• CRIB represents a new addition to global transfusion medicine.
• It is named following the standard nomenclature of the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT).
• This discovery adds to India’s significant contributions in rare blood immunogenetics.
• It underscores the importance of maintaining rare donor registries and promoting international collaboration in blood typing.
• About the Cromer Blood Group System: The Cromer system is a rare blood group classification comprising antigens located on the Decay-Accelerating Factor (DAF) protein on red blood cells. These antigens play a critical role in immune responses during blood transfusions.

Kaziranga National Park

Context:
Kaziranga Tiger Reserve (KTR) in Assam has achieved the third-highest tiger density in India, ranking after Bandipur and Corbett reserves, according to the latest report released by the Chief Minister of Assam on Global Tiger Day 2025.

Tiger Density in India

• Definition:
  Tiger density refers to the number of tigers per 100 square kilometers. It is an important indicator of a healthy predator population and ecological balance.
• Top Three Tiger Reserves by Density (2024):
• Bandipur, Karnataka: 19.83 tigers per 100 sq. km
• Corbett, Uttarakhand: 19.56 tigers per 100 sq. km
• Kaziranga, Assam: 18.65 tigers per 100 sq. km
• Kaziranga’s Tiger Population: Kaziranga recorded 148 tigers across an area of 1,307.49 sq. km, an increase from 104 tigers in 2022. This count includes 27 tigers from the recently surveyed Biswanath Division.

About Kaziranga National Park

• Location: Situated in the Golaghat and Nagaon districts of Assam, the park lies along the floodplains of the Brahmaputra River.
• Historical Background: Established in 1905 following recommendations by Mary Curzon, it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985 and designated as a Tiger Reserve in 2006.
• Ecological Characteristics: The park lies on the edge of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. It includes habitats such as tall elephant grass, marshes, and tropical forests.
• Flora: Four main vegetation types exist within the park: alluvial grasslands, savanna woodlands, moist deciduous forests, and semi-evergreen forests. Prominent tree species include Elephant Apple, Cotton Tree, and Indian Gooseberry.
• Fauna: Kaziranga supports the world’s largest population of Indian one-horned rhinoceros, with over 2,200 individuals. Other notable species include tigers, elephants, swamp deer, Hoolock gibbons, and migratory birds such as the greater adjutant and black-necked stork.

Report on “Status of Small Cats in Tiger Landscapes of India”

Released on Global Tiger Day (July 29)

This report, compiled by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), provides a detailed assessment of the occupancy and dynamics of small cat species in India’s tiger landscapes.

Key Findings

• The Jungle Cat is the most widely distributed small cat species in India, followed by the Rusty-Spotted Cat, which is the world’s smallest wildcat.
• India hosts 10 species of small cats: Pallas’s cat, Eurasian lynx, jungle cat, fishing cat, leopard cat, rusty-spotted cat, marbled cat, Asiatic golden cat, desert cat, and caracal.

About Small Cats

• Small cats belong to the subfamily Felinae and are hyper-carnivores found in almost all terrestrial biomes.
• Difference from Big Cats:

Big cats (such as tigers and lions) have a flexible hyoid bone that enables them to roar, whereas small cats have a rigid hyoid bone allowing them to purr continuously.

Major Small Cats in India

Syria (Capital: Damascus)

Context:
In India’s first official engagement since the fall of the Assad regime, officials from India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) met with ministers from the transitional Syrian government.

Political Features

• Syria is located in West Asia, along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the Levant region.
• It shares borders with Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the west.

Geographical Features

• Major Physical Regions: Syrian Desert, Euphrates River Valley, and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains which form the border with Lebanon.
• Important Rivers: Euphrates, Orontes, and Tigris.
• Conflict Zones: Cities affected by conflict include Aleppo, Homs, Idlib, and the Golan Heights—a disputed territory with Israel.

Digital Payment Index (DPI)

Context:
India''s digital payment ecosystem has witnessed a significant surge, recording over 65,000 crore digital transactions amounting to more than Rs. 12,000 lakh crore over the past six financial years.

About DPI:

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has developed the Digital Payment Index (DPI) as a semi-annual metric to track the level of digital payment adoption across the country.
• The index is composed of several key parameters:
• Payment Enablers
• Payment Infrastructure (further divided into demand-side and supply-side factors)
• Payment Performance
• Consumer Centricity
• According to the most recent RBI-DPI data, digital payment penetration in India has grown over four times since 2018, indicating rapid expansion and deepening of digital financial services.

Skill Impact Bond (SIB)

Context:
The Minister of State for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship highlighted the Skill Impact Bond (SIB) as a model delivering measurable social impact.

About SIB:

• The Skill Impact Bond is India’s first development impact bond focused on skills training and employment.
• Objective: To empower 50,000 Indian youth with skills training over a four-year period, with 60% of the targeted beneficiaries being women.
• Launched in: 2021
• Implemented by: The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, through the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC).

Alternative Investment Fund (AIF)

Context:
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has introduced revised regulations that limit investments by regulated entities to a maximum of 20% of an AIF scheme’s total corpus.

About AIF:

• An Alternative Investment Fund (AIF) refers to a privately pooled investment vehicle established or incorporated in India, which collects funds from sophisticated Indian or foreign investors based on a defined investment policy to benefit its investors.
• AIFs are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) under the SEBI (Alternative Investment Funds) Regulations, 2012.

Categories of AIFs:

1. Category I AIFs:
• Focus on investments in start-ups, early-stage ventures, or socially/economically beneficial sectors.
• Examples: Venture Capital Funds, Angel Funds, SME Funds, Infrastructure Funds.
2. Category II AIFs:
• Do not use leverage (borrowing), except for routine operational expenses.
• Examples: Private Equity Funds, Debt Funds, Real Estate Funds.
3. Category III AIFs:
• May use leverage, including through investments in listed or unlisted derivatives.
• Examples: Hedge Funds, Private Investment in Public Equity (PIPE)

Ratadiya Ri Dheri

Context:
A new Harappan archaeological site has been discovered at Ratadiya Ri Dheri, marking the first-known Indus Valley Civilization settlement in Rajasthan’s arid region.

About Ratadiya Ri Dheri:

• Period: Belongs to the mature urban phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to 2600–1900 BCE.
• Location: Situated in the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, the settlement is estimated to be 4,500 years old.
• Significance:
• This discovery bridges a significant archaeological gap by connecting previously known Harappan sites in northern Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Other Indus Valley Sites in Rajasthan:

• Kalibangan:
• Located in northern Rajasthan, it was a planned city established around 2900 BCE.
• Discovered by Italian Indologist Luigi Pio Tessitori, Kalibangan is a prominent Harappan site recognized for its urban layout and early agricultural practices.