The story of how heeng came to be successfully cultivated in India

• Heeng or asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida) is an essential ingredient in many Indian cuisines. A pinch of heeng is typically added to hot oil before other constituents when cooking. Despite the great diversity of India’s cuisines, most of them have recipes with heeng.
• Ancient Indian texts, including the Mahabharata and Ayurveda, reference heeng''s medicinal benefits. The Charaka Sanhita Sutrasthana suggests it can aid digestion, relieve abdominal pain, and enhance taste. Other classical works, such as the Pippalada Samhita and writings of Panini, also mention heeng.
• Historically, India relied on imports for its heeng supply, but in recent years, efforts led by CSIR-IHBT in Himachal Pradesh have successfully cultivated heeng domestically. This breakthrough reduces import dependence and strengthens India''s agricultural self-reliance.
• a The successful cultivation of heeng (asafoetida) in India marks a major milestone in reducing import dependence and strengthening agricultural self-reliance. Historically, India relied on imports from Afghanistan, Iran, and Uzbekistan, despite being the world''s largest consumer of heeng.

Key Developments:

• Led by CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (IHBT), Palampur, researchers initiated efforts to introduce heeng to Indian soil.
• After rigorous international searches, scientists procured viable heeng seeds from Iran (2018) and later Afghanistan (2020).
• The first heeng seedling was planted in India on October 15, 2020, in Kwaring village, Lahaul Valley, Himachal Pradesh.
• Controlled trials helped develop agronomic practices suited to Indian conditions.
• On May 28, 2025, scientists at CSIR-IHBT reported the first flowering and seed set in India, confirming its successful domestication.

Why This Matters:

• Heeng thrives in cold, arid regions, making Lahaul-Spiti and Uttarkashi ideal for cultivation.
• This breakthrough enables India to reduce imports, enhance farmer incomes, and build a self-reliant supply chain.
• The Heeng Germplasm Resource Centre, inaugurated in 2022 at IHBT Palampur, serves as India''s hub for research, conservation, and seed production.

What is the origin of gravity?

• The origin of gravity has been explored through two major scientific frameworks—Isaac Newton’s laws of gravitation and Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity.

Newton’s View:

• Newton described gravity as a force acting between two objects based on their masses and distance. His mathematics suggested that massive bodies influence each other simply by existing. However, he ultimately concluded that gravity existed because God had deemed it so, leaving its deeper origin unexplained.

Einstein’s Revolution:

• Einstein’s general theory of relativity, published in 1915, redefined gravity as a property of spacetime rather than a force. He proposed that the presence of energy and momentum deforms spacetime, similar to how a pillow changes shape when you rest your head on it. Objects appear to be pulled by a force but are actually following the natural curvature of spacetime.

Key Implication:

• Gravity is not a force but a geometric effect.
• Massive bodies bend spacetime, influencing how objects move.
• This concept explains phenomena like black holes and gravitational waves, which have been observed and confirmed in modern experiments

 India leads global push for Ocean Conservation at UNOC3, unveils Deep-Sea Mission and plastic clean-up initiatives

• India made a compelling case for urgent global action to protect ocean health at the Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) in Nice, with Union Minister of Earth Sciences Dr. Jitendra Singh unveiling ambitious strides in deep-sea exploration, marine plastic clean-up, and sustainable fisheries.
• Representing India at the conference, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica, Dr. Singh called for a legally binding Global Plastics Treaty, swift ratification of the BBNJ Agreement, and introduced the ‘SAHAV’ digital ocean data portal, reinforcing India’s leadership in global marine governance.

Key takeaways include:

• Global Plastics Treaty & BBNJ Agreement: India advocated for a legally binding treaty on plastic pollution and expedited ratification of the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement.
• Samudrayaan Project: Under the Deep Ocean Mission, India aims to deploy its first manned submersible by 2026 to explore ocean depths up to 6,000 meters.
• Marine Pollution Initiatives: The ''Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar'' campaign has removed over 50,000 tonnes of plastic waste from India’s coastline since 2022.
• Marine Protected Areas: Expansion now covers 6.6% of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone, aiding biodiversity conservation.
• Blue Economy Growth: Investments in port infrastructure and fisheries modernization have propelled economic and environmental sustainability.
• SAHAV Digital Ocean Portal: A new initiative to facilitate transparent, science-driven ocean management.
• International Leadership: India co-led ''Blue Talks'' with France and Costa Rica and participated in high-level marine planning discussions.

Key international treaties related to ocean governance

•  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): Often called the "constitution for the oceans," UNCLOS establishes rules for maritime boundaries, navigation rights, and resource management. It also defines Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and regulates deep-sea mining.
• Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement: Also known as the High Seas Treaty, this agreement aims to protect marine biodiversity in international waters, ensuring sustainable use of ocean resources.
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): This treaty includes provisions for marine biodiversity conservation, encouraging nations to establish marine protected areas.
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL): MARPOL sets regulations to prevent marine pollution from ships, including oil spills and waste disposal.
• Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks: This treaty ensures sustainable fishing practices for species that move across national boundaries.
• Regional Seas Conventions: Various regional agreements, such as the OSPAR Convention for the North-East Atlantic and the Cartagena Convention for the Caribbean, focus on protecting marine environments in specific areas

Marine conservation efforts in India

• A India has undertaken several major marine conservation initiatives to protect ocean biodiversity and promote sustainable practices. Here are some key efforts:
• Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): India has designated 130 MPAs across coastal states and islands, covering 6.6% of its Exclusive Economic Zone. These areas safeguard marine species and ecosystems.
• Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar Campaign: Since 2022, this initiative has cleaned over 1,000 km of coastline and removed 50,000+ tonnes of plastic waste.
• Dugong Conservation Reserve: A 450 sq km area in Palk Bay has been set aside to protect dugongs and seagrass habitats.
• National Marine Turtle Action Plan: Focuses on conserving five species of marine turtles found in Indian waters.
• Artificial Reefs & Coral Restoration: India is using technology-driven solutions like artificial reefs and remote sensing to restore marine ecosystems.
• Deep Ocean Mission & Samudrayaan: India plans to deploy its first manned submersible by 2026 to explore ocean depths up to 6,000 meters.
• Project Dolphin Expansion: Originally focused on river dolphins, this project now includes marine dolphins for conservation.
• Sagarmala Programme & PMMSY: Investments in port-led infrastructure and fisheries modernization have boosted the Blue Economy.
• India’s progressive approach integrates science, policy, and community engagement to ensure long-term marine sustainability.

National e-Vidhan Application (NeVA)

• NeVA is a Mission Mode Project (MMP) under the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs (MoPA), bringing the vision of ‘One Nation – One Application’ to life for paperless governance. The platform streamlines legislative workflows by digitizing essential procedures like e-Attendance, e-Voting, and document management, ensuring that ministers and legislators can access their parliamentary work on mobile devices.
• This initiative is hosted on the NIC Cloud MeghRaj, providing a secure, disaster-proof digital environment while integrating features such as notices, bulletins, business lists, press releases, and live webcasting of proceedings.

Implementation Milestones:

• Nagaland was the first Legislative Assembly to implement NeVA.
• Himachal Pradesh Assembly pioneered paperless governance under a pilot project in 2014, reportedly saving ₹5.08 crores annually.
• With centrally sponsored funding, NeVA ensures equitable digital transformation across all participating states and UTs. The recent expansion to Puducherry reflects its growing adoption in governance.

key technologies behind NeVA:

1. Cloud-Based Architecture

• NeVA is hosted on NIC Cloud MeghRaj, ensuring secure, disaster-proof operations. This cloud infrastructure provides:
• Scalability to accommodate multiple state legislatures.
• Data security with encryption and access control.
• Disaster recovery mechanisms to prevent data loss.

2. Device-Neutral Access

• NeVA is accessible across smartphones, tablets, laptops, and desktops, allowing legislators to engage with parliamentary work seamlessly.

3. Paperless Legislature & Digital Repository

• e-Books for members, enabling e-Attendance, e-Voting, and digital proceedings.
• Real-time access to legislative documents, including bills, agendas, notices, and reports.
• Multilingual support for diverse legislative needs.

4. Secure Cloud Infrastructure

• NeVA operates on MeghRaj 2.0, ensuring robust security, data integrity, and confidentiality.

5. Mobile Application (mNeVA)

• A dedicated mobile app allows ministers and members to manage parliamentary work on the go, with features like:
• Live webcasting of proceedings.
• Instant notifications for legislative updates.
• Direct access to starred/unstarred questions, business lists, and press releases.

6. AI & Data Analytics

• NeVA integrates data analytics for comparative analysis across state legislatures, helping policymakers make informed decision

Two inscriptions along with the 800-year-old Shiva temple of the later Pandya period was unearthed in Melur, Tamil Nadu.

• The Pandya Inscription discovered in Melur, Tamil Nadu, is linked to an 800-year-old Shiva temple from the later Pandya period. This find is significant for understanding the historical and cultural richness of the Pandya dynasty.

Key Insights from the Inscription:

• Period: Reign of Maravarman Sundara Pandya I (ascended in 1216 CE).
• Historical Importance: Maravarman Sundara Pandya I expanded the Pandya empire by successfully invading the Chola kingdom and adopting titles like Kaliyugaraman, Adisayapandiyadevan, and Sonadugondan (Conqueror of the Chola country).
• Inscription Details: It records a sale deed of the Nagankudi waterbody, sold for 64 kasu (coins).
• Geographical Insight: The inscription identifies Attur as the ancient name of Udampatti.

Significance of the Pandya Dynasty:

• One of the three prominent Tamil dynasties (alongside the Cholas and Cheras).
• Had strong maritime trade with Rome, Greece, and Southeast Asia.
• Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (1251–1272 CE) further strengthened the dynasty
• Patronized Tamil literature and temple architecture.
• Supported Shaivism, while also promoting Jainism and Buddhism.
• Established advanced water management systems for agricultural prosperity.
• Madurai flourished as a cultural and economic hub.
• The Pandya dynasty declined after facing Delhi Sultanate invasions in the 14th century, eventually falling to the Vijayanagara Empire.

RBI to discontinue daily Variable Rate Repo auctions amid liquidity surplus

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has decided to discontinue daily Variable Rate Repo (VRR) auctions starting June 11, 2025, due to improved liquidity conditions in the banking system.

Key Reasons for Discontinuation:

• Surplus Liquidity: The banking system currently has a liquidity surplus of ₹3 lakh crore.
• Low Demand: Banks borrowed only ₹3,711 crore on June 9 and ₹3,853 crore on June 10, far below the ₹25,000 crore notified amount.
• Policy Shift: The RBI is now focusing on stabilizing overnight money market rates, which have been trending lower due to excess funds.

Impact on Banking & Liquidity Management:

• 14-day VRR auctions will continue to manage short-term liquidity.
• CRR Cut: The RBI recently reduced the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 100 basis points to 3.0%, injecting ₹2.5 lakh crore into the banking system.
• Alternative Liquidity Tools: The RBI will rely on Standing Deposit Facility (SDF), Open Market Operations (OMO), and forex swaps to fine-tune liquidity
• a Impact on Interest Rates
• Short-term rates remain stable: Since banks have excess liquidity, the need for borrowing through VRR auctions has decreased, keeping overnight money market rates low.
• Repo rate adjustments matter more: The RBI’s recent 50 basis point repo rate cut has a greater influence on lending rates than the discontinuation of VRR auctions.
• Call money and Tri-Party Repo (TREPS) markets will absorb liquidity needs, ensuring smooth operations.

Impact on Lending

• Lower borrowing costs: Banks are likely to reduce lending rates, making loans more affordable for businesses and consumers.
• Boost to credit growth: With ₹2.5 lakh crore injected into the system due to the CRR cut, banks have more funds to lend.
• Home loans and business financing: Borrowers may see lower EMIs and cheaper credit, especially in sectors like housing, MSMEs, and infrastructure.
• Overall Market Effect
• Minimal disruption: Since liquidity is already in surplus, the end of daily VRR auctions does not create instability.
• Continued liquidity management: The RBI will still conduct 14-day VRR auctions and use Open Market Operations (OMO) to fine-tune liquidity

 Khichan and Menar were designated as Ramsar Sites

• Recently, Khichan and Menar were designated Ramsar Sites on World Environment Day 2025, reinforcing India''s commitment to wetland conservation.
• The Menar Wetland Complex in Rajasthan is a crucial ecological site, famous for attracting Demoiselle Cranes and serving as an important stop along the Central Asian Flyway, a migratory route for birds traveling across Asia.

Menar Wetland Complex:

• A freshwater monsoon wetland formed by three interconnected ponds: Braham Talab, Dhand Talab, and Kheroda Talab.
• Home to critically endangered species such as the White-rumped Vulture and Long-billed Vulture.
• Known as “Bird Village”, making it a hotspot for eco-tourism and birdwatching.

Khichan Wetland

• The Khichan Wetland in Rajasthan, newly designated as a Ramsar Site on World Environment Day 2025, is a vital ecological zone located within the Thar Desert. It comprises Ratri Nadi (river) and Vijaysagar Talab (pond), forming an essential freshwater habitat for migratory birds.

Key Features:

• Famous for Demoiselle Cranes: Khichan is globally recognized for hosting large flocks of Demoiselle Cranes, which migrate through the Central Asian Flyway.
• A Crucial Stop for Migratory Birds: The wetland plays a significant role in supporting bird populations that travel between Eurasia and India, offering them a seasonal refuge.

Ramsar Recognition & Importance:

• The Ramsar Convention, adopted in Ramsar, Iran (1971), is an intergovernmental treaty under UNESCO that provides a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands worldwide. It recognizes wetlands as vital ecosystems supporting biodiversity, water management, and climate resilience.

Key Features of Ramsar Convention:

• Objective: Ensures the wise use and long-term protection of wetlands and their resources.
• India’s Ramsar Sites: India currently has 91 Ramsar sites, highlighting its commitment to wetland conservation.
• Largest Ramsar Site in India: The Sundarbans (West Bengal), known for its mangrove forests and unique biodiversity.

Significance in India:

• India has prioritized wetland conservation, recognizing their role in:
• Supporting migratory birds, including those traveling via the Central Asian Flyway.
• Preserving critical species, such as those found in the Menar and Khichan wetlands, recently designated as Ramsar sites.
• Enhancing climate adaptation and water security.

Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC)

• The Preserving critical species, such as those found in the Menar and Khichan wetlands, recently designated as Ramsar sites.
• Enhancing climate adaptation and water security.
• The Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC), chaired by Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, held its 29th meeting on June 10, 2025, in Mumbai to discuss key financial sector reforms.

Key Focus Areas:

Enhancing Cybersecurity

• The FSDC examined ways to strengthen cyber resilience in India''s financial sector.
• It considered a sector-specific cybersecurity strategy, incorporating recommendations from the Financial Sector Assessment Programme (FSAP) 2024-25.

Easing KYC Norms

• The council discussed simplifying Know Your Customer (KYC) processes, including for Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in the Indian securities market.
• The goal is to reduce compliance burdens and improve digital onboarding for financial services.

Addressing Unclaimed Financial Assets

• The FSDC explored strategies to reduce unclaimed assets in bank deposits, dividends, shares, post office accounts, insurance, and pension funds.
• It emphasized quick and seamless refunds to rightful owners
• aa emphasized quick and seamless

Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC)

• The Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) was set up by the government as the apex level forum in December 2010 with a view to strengthening and institutionalising the mechanism for maintaining financial stability, enhancing inter-regulatory coordination and promoting financial sector development.
• The Union Finance Minister is the chairperson of the Council. 
•  Members include the Minister of State for finance, the heads of the financial sector regulators (RBI, SEBI, PFRDA, IRDA & Forward Markets Commission) and secretaries of the relevant ministries/departments of the government.
• The Council can invite experts to its meeting if required.
• The Financial Stability and Cyber Security (FS&CS) Division in the Department of Economic Affairs provides secretarial assistance to the FSDC.

Functions of FSDC:

• Without prejudice to the autonomy of regulators, the Council monitors macro prudential supervision of the economy, including functioning of large financial conglomerates, and addresses inter-regulatory coordination and financial sector development issues. 
• It also focuses on financial literacy and financial inclusion. 
• The Council deliberates on contextual issues covering financial stability, financial sector development.
•  It coordinates India’s international interfaces with financial sector bodies like the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and the Financial Stability Board (FSB). 

FSDC Sub-Committee (FSDC-SC)

• The FSDC is supported by a Sub-Committee (FSDC-SC), chaired by the RBI governor.
• Excluding the Chair of the FSDC and the MoS (Finance), all members of the FSDC are also the members of the Sub-Committee.
• Additionally, all four deputy governors (DG) of RBI, and secretary (FSDC), are also the members of the sub-committee. 
• Financial Stability Report (FSR) acts as a communication tool of the central bank in limiting instability by pointing out the key risks and vulnerabilities, which may have systemic impact, to policy makers, market participants and the public at large. 
• It reflects the collective assessment of the Sub-Committee of the Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC-SC) on risks to financial stability and the resilience of the financial system in the context of contemporaneous issues relating to development and regulation of the financial sector. 

Various working groups/technical groups

• There are various working groups/technical groups constituted under the aegis of the FSDC.
• 1) The Inter-Regulatory Technical Group was set up in September 2011 for the purpose of inter-regulatory coordination among the financial sector regulators. The Group generally meets once in every two to three months and discusses issues relating to risks to systemic financial stability and inter-regulatory coordination and provides inputs to the sub-committee.
• 2) The Technical Group on Financial Inclusion and Financial Literacy was set up in November 2011. The Group is chaired by RBI deputy governor who is in charge of financial stability and has representatives from all regulators.
• 3) Inter Regulatory Forum for monitoring Financial Conglomerates (IRF-FC), modelled around the ‘lead regulator’ principle, was set up in August 2012. The IRF-FC is headed by RBI deputy governor (in-charge-of the Department of Banking Supervision) and represented by senior representatives of all the financial sector regulators at the level of executive directors.
• 4) The Early Warning Group was set up by the FSDC Sub-Committee in June 2012. The Group is chaired by RBI deputy governor who is in charge of Financial Markets Department. 
• 5) The Macro Financial Monitoring Group was set up in May 2012, which meets regularly in DEA, to discuss any specific emergent issues. This Group is chaired by the Chief Economic Adviser and has representation from all the departments of the ministry of finance

National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF)

• The National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF) was established by the Indian government to facilitate long-term investments in infrastructure and related sectors. It serves as a collaborative investment platform for both domestic and international investors, managing funds across various asset classes to generate attractive risk-adjusted returns.
• During the sixth meeting of the Governing Council on June 9, chaired by Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, the council reviewed NIIF’s strategy, investment status, sector focus, and overall performance. The council acknowledged NIIF’s evolution as a sovereign-linked asset manager, highlighting its role in mobilizing capital into infrastructure and other key sectors of the Indian economy.
• The Governing Council advised NIIF to leverage its sovereign-backed design—meaning it should capitalize on its government-supported structure to attract more investments. Additionally, the council emphasized the importance of showcasing NIIF’s role and performance on the global stage, ensuring that international investors recognize its contributions and potential.
• NIIF currently manages over $4.9 billion in equity capital commitments across four distinct funds, including the Master Fund (focused on core infrastructure sectors), the Fund of Funds (supporting private equity investments), the Strategic Opportunities Fund (investing in high-growth businesses), and the India-Japan Fund (targeting environmental preservation and partnerships with Japanese firms).
• The council also noted NIIF’s expansion in assets under management, which has grown to ₹30,000 crore, catalyzing additional capital of ₹11,7000 crore. Recognizing NIIF’s partnerships with sovereign wealth funds, pension funds, and multilateral development banks, the council encouraged further efforts to strengthen these relationships and explore new avenues for capital raising
• The National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF) was established in 2015 as India''s sovereign wealth fund, aimed at mobilizing investments into infrastructure and other key sectors. It serves as a collaborative investment platform for both domestic and international investors, managing funds across various asset classes to generate attractive risk-adjusted returns.

Objectives and Scope

• NIIF focuses on maximizing economic impact through investments in commercially viable infrastructure projects, including greenfield and brownfield developments. It also considers nationally important projects in sectors like ports, logistics, renewable energy, roads, airports, smart meters, digital infrastructure, climate, affordable housing, healthcare, and venture capital/technologies.

Structure and Funds

• NIIF manages over $4.9 billion in equity capital commitments across four distinct funds:
• These four funds are: 
• i) NIIF Master Fund is India’s largest domestic infrastructure fund, investing in high-quality businesses and assets across core sectors. Its platforms span transportation (ports, logistics, roads, airports), energy (renewables, smart meters), and digital infrastructure. Through its investments, the fund has created industry leaders and established itself as a partner of choice across diverse sectors.
• ii) NIIF Fund of Funds (FoF) is one of the largest India-dedicated fund of funds programme globally. It is focused on building a portfolio of private equity funds across diversified sectors and investment strategies. FoF makes significant commitments, including providing anchor capital, to managers enabling them to attract further institutional capital for their funds. FoF aims to provide its investors a well-diversified exposure to sectors and strategies that benefit from India’s demographics, rising incomes and discretionary spending, and a strong policy framework.
• iii) NIIF Strategic Opportunities Fund (SOF) is an India-focused growth equity fund. Established with the objective of providing long-term capital to high-growth future-ready businesses in India, the fund’s strategy is to build a portfolio of large entrepreneur-led or professionally managed domestic champions and unicorns.
• iv) The India-Japan Fund (IJF) is a strategic bilateral partnership between the government of India and Japan Bank for International Cooperation, a Japanese public financial institution, both being anchor investors in the Fund. It seeks to invest in India’s environment preservation sector and also to explore opportunities to partner with Japanese companies investing into India.

How NIIF varies  with other investment funds in India?

• The National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF) stands out among India''s investment funds due to its sovereign-backed structure and focus on infrastructure development. Here’s how it compares with other major investment funds in India:

1. Sovereign Wealth Fund vs. Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)

• NIIF is India''s first sovereign wealth fund, meaning it is state-backed and primarily invests in long-term infrastructure projects.
• Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs), regulated by SEBI, include venture capital funds, hedge funds, and private equity funds. These funds cater to high-risk, high-return investments across various sectors, including startups and financial markets.

2. Infrastructure Focus vs. Diversified Investments

• NIIF is dedicated to infrastructure, investing in ports, logistics, renewable energy, roads, airports, smart meters, and digital infrastructure.
• Other investment funds, such as private equity funds and venture capital funds, focus on technology, healthcare, consumer goods, and financial services.

3. Government-Backed vs. Private Sector Funds

• NIIF is anchored by the Government of India, ensuring policy alignment and stability.
• Private investment funds, including hedge funds and venture capital funds, operate independently, driven by market trends and investor interests.

4. Global Partnerships vs. Domestic Investments

• NIIF collaborates with sovereign wealth funds, pension funds, and multilateral development banks, attracting international capital.
• Other funds, such as Category I AIFs, focus on domestic startups, SMEs, and social ventures, often receiving government incentives.

5. Long-Term Capital vs. Short-Term Gains

• NIIF provides long-term patient capital, ensuring steady infrastructure growth.
• Hedge funds and private equity funds prioritize short-term returns, leveraging market fluctuations