Why the second stage of the GSLV Mk II rocket is crucial to the NISAR Mission

• India is preparing for one of its most important space missions the launch of the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite scheduled for June 2025. 
• The rocket that will carry this high-tech satellite is the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II), which has been developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• The GSLV Mk II is a three-stage rocket with four liquid strap-on boosters. It stands 50.9 metres tall and is capable of carrying 2,500 kilograms to a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) or 5,000 kilograms to a Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Each stage of the rocket plays a key role, but the second stage (GS2) acts as a critical bridge between the powerful liftoff and the precision needed to place satellites into orbit.
• The first stage of the GSLV uses a solid-fuel motor, assisted by four liquid-fueled boosters, to produce the initial thrust needed to escape Earth’s gravity. After this stage burns out, the GS2 takes over and continues to power the rocket upward.
• The GS2, or second stage, uses a Vikas engine, which has been a reliable workhorse in many of ISRO’s past launches. It runs on liquid propellants—unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (N₂O₄) as oxidiser.
• These are hypergolic propellants, meaning they ignite automatically upon contact with each other, which adds to their reliability and ease of ignition in space.
• The GS2 burns for about 150 seconds, providing a steady and controllable thrust that helps the rocket maintain its correct path through the atmosphere.
•  It is during this stage that the rocket must travel through the upper layers of Earth’s atmosphere, where aerodynamic forces are still active and corrections in the flight path may be needed. Unlike solid motors, which cannot be adjusted once fired, the liquid propulsion in GS2 allows for fine control, enabling the rocket to correct any early flight deviations.
• Then comes the third stage (GS3), which is powered by cryogenic propellants—liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX). These are stored at extremely low temperatures and are more efficient than conventional fuels.
•  The GS3 burns for around 720 seconds (12 minutes), giving the final push needed to insert the satellite into its precise orbit. This indigenously developed cryogenic stage is a significant achievement for India, marking self-reliance in advanced rocket technology.
• But for the third stage to do its job properly, the second stage must first lift the rocket to the right altitude and velocity. If the GS2 underperforms, the cryogenic stage won’t have enough energy or time to adjust the satellite’s orbit.
•  A similar issue happened in 2021 when the GSLV-F10 mission carrying the EOS-03 satellite failed due to a cryogenic stage malfunction. Though the issue lay in the upper stage, it reminded everyone how each stage of a rocket is interconnected—a failure in one part can jeopardize the whole mission.
• On March 24, 2025, ISRO successfully flagged off the GS2 stage from its Propulsion Complex in Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu, and transported it to the launch site at Sriharikota, marking a key milestone in the GSLV-F16 mission preparation. This readiness reflects ISRO’s engineering discipline, technical expertise, and high safety standards.
•  The upcoming launch will carry NISAR, a joint mission between NASA and ISRO. This satellite will monitor changes on Earth, such as deforestation, melting glaciers, natural disasters, and infrastructure development.
•  It will orbit the Earth at a height of 747 km in a sun-synchronous polar orbit, using two radars L-band from NASA and an S-band from ISRO to scan the planet every 12 days, offering high-resolution data between 5 and 10 metres.
• “Placing this advanced satellite in such a specific orbit requires flawless performance from each rocket stage, especially the GS2. The second stage determines whether the cryogenic engine can take over successfully. Any delay or deviation in this phase can compromise the final outcome,” remarked space expert Girish Linganna. 
•  He also adds that the GS2’s contribution also highlights India’s growing mastery of liquid propulsion systems, which are not only more precise but also more complex to manage.
•  “Building, assembling, fuelling, and testing a liquid stage involves great care to prevent leaks, pressure failures, or engine shutdowns. The successful handling of GS2 proves that ISRO is ready for the next level of space missions, including human spaceflight (Gaganyaan) and commercial launches through NewSpace India Limited (NSIL

India’s leap to the stars: Gaganyaan’s TV-D2 and uncrewed flights pave the way

•  India’s Gaganyaan mission is a bold dream to send three astronauts into space, orbiting 400 km above Earth for three days before safely landing in Indian waters. Set for a crewed launch in 2027, this mission will make India the fourth nation with independent human spaceflight capability, joining the United States, Russia, and China. But before astronauts take flight, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) must ensure every system is perfect. 
• In 2025, the second test vehicle mission (TV-D2) and two uncrewed orbital flights (G1 and G2) will take place in 2026. These tests are the foundation of Gaganyaan, ensuring safety and success. They are not just technical steps but symbols of India’s ambition and pride. Let’s dive into what TV-D2 entails and why these tests matter so much.
•  The TV-D2 mission is all about testing the Crew Escape System (CES), a vital safety feature for astronauts. Think of it as an emergency lifeboat. If something goes wrong during the rocket’s launch—like an engine failure or an explosion the CES quickly pulls the crew module (where astronauts sit) away from the rocket, carrying it to safety.
•  The first test, TV-D1, conducted in October 2023, successfully showed that the CES could work at supersonic speeds, separating the crew module and landing it safely in the sea with parachutes. TV-D2, planned for later in 2025, takes this further by testing the CES under different, more challenging conditions
• So, what exactly will ISRO do in TV-D2? While exact details are not fully public? “TV-D2 is expected to simulate a launch emergency at a different point in the rocket’s ascent, possibly at a higher altitude or speed, or under a specific failure scenario, like a booster malfunction.
•  The test will involve launching a test vehicle a simplified rocket from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota. This vehicle carries a crew module equipped with the CES. At a predetermined point, ISRO will trigger the CES to separate the module from the rocket.
•  The system’s powerful motors will fire, pulling the module away rapidly. Parachutes will then deploy to slow its descent, aiming for a safe splashdown in the Bay of Bengal. ISRO will monitor every second, checking if the CES activates correctly, separates cleanly, and lands the module safely. This ensures the system can handle various emergencies, protecting astronauts in real missions,” explained space expert Girish Linganna. 
• The uncrewed orbital flights, G1 and G2, are equally crucial. G1, likely in 2026, will send a crew module into a 400 km orbit using the Human-Rated Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (HLVM3). 
• It tests the entire mission: launch, reaching orbit, surviving in space, reentering the Earth’s atmosphere, and splashing down in the sea. A robot astronaut, Vyommitra, may be on board to mimic human tasks, checking life support systems like oxygen and temperature control. 
• G2 repeats these tests, possibly with added experiments, to confirm everything works perfectly. These flights are like full rehearsals, ensuring the crew module and rocket are ready for astronauts.

Why are these tests so important?

• Space is dangerous, and even a small error can be deadly. TV-D2 ensures the CES is a reliable escape route, ready for any launch mishap. G1 and G2 test the mission’s core systems rocket, orbit, reentry, and recovery so ISRO can fix issues before humans fly.
•  For example, if G1 shows a problem with the heat shield during reentry, ISRO can correct it for G2 and the crewed mission. These tests build confidence, proving India’s technology is up to the challenge.
• “The significance of these tests goes far beyond just checking boxes on a list. Human spaceflight is one of the most challenging and unforgiving endeavours. Every system must work perfectly, and every possible scenario must be anticipated and rehearsed.
•  By conducting these uncrewed tests, ISRO can identify and fix any issues before risking human lives. These tests are also an opportunity to gather invaluable data, refine operational procedures, and build confidence among the mission team,” explained Srimathy Kesan, founder and CEO of Space Kidz India. 
• Gaganyaan mission is a matter of national pride and strategic importance. With these tests, India is demonstrating its ability to develop complex spaceflight technologies independently, without relying on foreign partners.
• This not only boosts India’s standing in the global space community but also opens up new possibilities for scientific research, international collaboration, and commercial opportunities in space

Tackling NAFLD: TN health dept launches study on fatty liver disease in tribal communities

• In a first of its kind, the Tamil Nadu Dr MGR Medical University has started a pilot study to assess the prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease called NAFLD, among the tribal population in Tamil Nadu.
•  The study which has begun as a pilot project in collaboration with the health department has been initiated in the Jawadhu Hills region of Tiruvannamalai district.
• The study aims to screen 50,000 people and identify high-risk individuals by checking for abdominal obesity, family history of diabetes and hypertension. Around 500 tribals have been screened and 120 blood samples have been analysed, so far. 
• The pilot study among the tribals aims to assess the prevalence of NAFLD. The preliminary findings have revealed that 10 to 14 per cent fall under the high-risk or the FIB-4 category for liver fibrosis.
• Those who have been identified under the high-risk category will now undergo a fibro scan to confirm the extent of fibrosis. The medical camps organised in the areas will identify the individuals through initial screenings and those who require further assessment are being referred to primary health centres.
• Titled as Community Screening Programme for Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD), the pilot study will evaluate the feasibility, scalability and sustainability of interventions to reduce fatty liver disease in tribal areas. 
• India is one of the countries where liver disease is a cause of death. At least one-fourth of the population is obese and is at risk of fatty liver. A recent study revealed that close to eight per cent of the rural population in Tamil Nadu have abnormal liver function tests and one per cent have cirrhosis. 

What is NAFLD? 

• NAFLD is caused by excessive fat accumulation in the liver in individuals with little or no alcohol consumption. The union health ministry has included MASLD in the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases emphasising early screening, lifestyle changes and health system integration.
• “We want to focus on tribal populations and see whether they are at high risk for MASLD. Later, the study will be extended to rural and urban regions of Tiruvannamalai.

How machine learning can spark many discoveries in science and medicine

• We may be living in a golden age of discovery — not just because we know more than ever before, but because the very way we do science is undergoing a profound transformation.
• There will soon be widespread methods for the prediction of sepsis or diabetic retinopathy or for the early detection of Alzheimer’s.
• There will be custom-made drugs and treatments that take into account your age, gender and genetic type. In fact, the developments have been so rapid and extraordinary that some have predicted the end of conventional disease, as we know it, in a decade.
• Seasonal rainfall and cyclones will be predicted with more accuracy. Even before new drugs are synthesised, computers will figure out how efficient they could be.

Why is scientific discovery changing?

• Throughout most of human scientific history, discovery was driven by patient human effort. Data was precious, experiments were hard-won, and scientists would painstakingly design algorithms — fitting functions, solving equations, building models — to extract insights.
•  The amount of data available was modest, and the number of researchers able to work on it was sufficient. In that world, human ingenuity could keep pace with information.
• Today, that balance has broken. Across fields, the volume of data has exploded. Telescopes generate terabytes nightly. Genome sequencers run around the clock. Simulations churn out petascale outputs. Hardware — both observational and computational — has advanced dramatically.
• But human attention and the number of scientists have not scaled in the same way. Algorithms hand-crafted by experts that require constant tuning are no longer sufficient when data volumes dwarf our collective capacity to engage with them manually.
• Remarkably, just as this problem became acute, machine learning rose to meet it. Though the foundations of artificial intelligence stretch back decades, it is only in the past ten years — and especially the past five — that self-learning algorithms have matured into powerful and scalable scientific tools
• The coincidence is striking: at the very moment that science risked drowning in its own data, machines emerged that could swim.

Machine learning as a widely adopted method

• The rise of these algorithms itself is a story of convergence. Until the early 2010s, computers recognised patterns only when engineers wrote explicit rules. That changed with two watershed moments.
• First, a public contest called the ImageNet challenge provided a million labelled photographs to compete on. One entrant, a deep neural network dubbed AlexNet, learnt to identify objects by tuning its internal connections through trial and error on graphics processors originally built for video games.
•  Without any hand-coded feature detectors, AlexNet halved the error rate of all previous systems. This proved that with enough data and compute, machines could learn complex patterns on their own.
• Then in 2016, DeepMind’s AlphaGo – designed to play the ancient board game Go – demonstrated the power of reinforcement learning, an approach where a system improves by playing repeatedly and rewarding itself for wins. In a historic five-game match, AlphaGo defeated world champion Lee Sedol, surprising professionals by playing sequences of moves never before seen.

Breakthroughs across disciplines

• This convergence has opened the door to breakthroughs across disciplines. In biology, the protein-folding problem exemplifies the impact. A typical protein is a chain of 200–300 amino acids that can fold into an astronomical number of shapes, yet only one produces the correct biological function.
• Experimental methods to determine these structures can take months or fail outright. In 2020, DeepMind’s AlphaFold2 changed that. Trained on decades of known protein structures and sequence data, it now predicts three-dimensional shapes in seconds with laboratory-level accuracy.
• Such accuracy accelerates drug discovery by letting chemists model how candidate molecules fit into their targets before any synthesis. Enzyme engineers can design catalysts for sustainable chemistry, and disease researchers can understand how mutations disrupt function. In recognition of this leap, the 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Demis Hassabis, John Jumper, and David Baker

World Thalassaemia Day 2025

• The World Thalassaemia Day is observed on May 8 every year to raise awareness and promote action around the genetic disorder that affects millions of people worldwide.
• The day reminds governments, medical professionals and the public about the importance of diagnosing and treating the disease. The theme this year is ''Together for Thalassaemia: Uniting communities and prioritising patients'', underscoring the need for a patient-centred approach.
• According to the Mayo Clinic, thalassaemia is a blood disorder that is inherited, which means it''s passed from parents to children through genes. The disease causes the body to have less of the protein haemoglobin than the normal count which will affect the oxygen supply across the body. Eventually, this can lead to a condition called anaemia.

What causes thalassaemia?

• Haemoglobin molecules are made of protein chains called alpha and beta, and these chains are affected by gene changes which can either cause alpha-thalassaemia or beta-thalassaemia, the two types of the disease. The condition can cause anaemia, fatigue and other complications, affecting individuals of all ages, as per Mayo Clinic.

History of World Thalassemia Day

• World Thalassemia Day was established by the Thalassaemia International Federation (TIF) in 1994, in memory of George Englezos, the son of TIF founder Panos Englezos.
• George died due to thalassaemia, and the day was globally observed to remember such individuals who are affected and ensure their safety. Since then, the day has been marked every year with campaigns, blood donation drives, and policy talks across different countries.

Symptoms

• The symptoms of the disease are based on the severity and it mainly includes fatigue, weakness, pale or yellowish skin, facial bone deformities, dark urine, and abdominal swelling.
• In recent years, significant progress has been made in the treatment and management of thalassaemia. Advancements in medical research have led to the development of new treatments, including gene therapy and stem cell transportation.
• However, it is necessary to take more measures to address the social and emotional challenges faced by the victims of the disease. As we observe World Thalassemia Day 2025, let us all cooperate to support those who are affected and work towards a future where everyone has access to quality treatment across the globe.

Can bone marrow transplants help thalassaemia patients improve their quality of life?

• As India observes World Thalassaemia Day today, health experts are sounding the alarm over the increasing number of children affected by thalassemia, a life-threatening genetic blood disorder. The theme this year is, ''Together for Thalassaemia: Uniting Communities, Prioritising Patients.'' 
• Late detection and lack of access to regular treatment are the two main problem areas in addressing Thalassaemia cases among children in India. This inherited blood disorder caused by mutations affecting hemoglobin production, leads to severe anemia and related complications.
• Children born with thalassaemia major often require lifelong blood transfusions every 2–4 weeks and iron chelation therapy to prevent organ damage. This number is preventable through early carrier screening and genetic counselling, yet awareness remains low, especially in rural areas.
• While prevention is the only sustainable solution, a simple blood test before marriage or childbirth is all it takes could save thousands of lives.

Bone marrow transplants- leading the way forward

• Unlike regular blood transfusions and iron chelation therapy—which only manage symptoms—Bone marrow transplants (BMT) replaces the defective blood-forming stem cells with healthy ones, allowing the body to produce normal haemoglobin.
• A successful transplant can free a patient from lifelong dependence on blood transfusions, iron overload complications such as damage to the heart and the liver and repeated hospital visits and treatments. The main challenge involved with a BMT transplant is to find a fully matched donor in the first place, which for many takes years. Add to that the high cost associated with the process and the risks of complications like graft-versus-host disease.
• Interestingly, newer developments in science are making BMTs accessible - where a fully matched donor was crucial to get a transplant, a few hospitals in India are now offering Haploidentical transplants,  that is the transplant of stem cells from a half-matched (haplo) donor. 
• Haploidentical transplant has been a life-saving solution for children suffering from critical conditions that require bone marrow transplants. This breakthrough significantly expands donor possibilities, reduces dependency on fully matched donors and helps to overcome the challenges posed by donor registry shortages and high costs.

From HAMMER bombs to SCALP missiles, all you need to know about weapons used in ''Operation Sindoor

• Precision strike weapon systems, including the loitering munitions, of India''s three armed forces—the Indian Army, Navy and Air Force—were used in ''Operation Sindoor'' to target nine terrorist hideouts located in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied-Kashmir.
•  The coordinates for the attacks on terrorist camps inside Pakistan and PoK were provided by the intelligence agencies.
• The attacks were carried out from Indian soil only. India used a variety of weapons to target the terror outfits.
• These include the SCALP (Storm Shadow) missiles, which are long-range, air-launched cruise missiles capable of deep strikes with high accuracy.
• Media reports suggest that the French-origin precision-guided, air-to-surface bomb system HAMMER (Highly Agile Modular Munition Extended Range) too was used by the Indian security forces. These bombs are known for their flexibility, accuracy, and stand-off capability.
• A Loitering munitions, also known as "suicide drones" or "kamikaze drones" that can hover over a target area and strike at the optimal moment, either autonomously or under human control, also were reportedly used to target the militant outfits.
• The operation featured beyond-visual-range and stand-off weapons to ensure that the Indian forces did not cross over to the Pakistani side while targetting the terror camps. These weapons were picked because of their precision capabilities and ability to minimise collateral damage, limiting the impact exclusively on terror camps.
• Sources told that it was a joint operation by the Indian Army and Air Force. Among the targets hit in a precise operation were Markaz Subhan Allah at Bahawalpur, Sarjal at Tehra Kalan, Markaz Abbas in Kotli and Syedna Bilal camp in Muzaffarabad. 
• The SCALP (Storm Shadow) missiles are precision-guided, long-range, air-launched cruise missiles designed for deep strikes with high accuracy. In the context of ''Operation Sindoor,'' India deployed these missiles to target terrorist hideouts in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir without crossing into enemy territory. The SCALP missiles were chosen for their ability to minimize collateral damage while ensuring effective strikes on high-value targets
• These missiles, originally developed by France and the UK, are known for their advanced guidance systems, which include GPS, inertial navigation, terrain-following radar, and infrared imaging.
• They carry a powerful BROACH warhead capable of penetrating hardened structures, making them ideal for striking fortified enemy positions2. With a range exceeding 250 km, SCALP missiles allow aircraft to launch attacks from a safe distance
• A SCALP missiles have a notably long range—commonly cited around 450 km and in some accounts even higher—enabling aircraft to launch them from a safe distance.
• This stand-off capability ensures that the launching platform remains well outside the reach of enemy air defenses. By contrast, many other air-launched weapons, such as systems like the HAMMER bomb, operate at a shorter range (roughly 70 km), meaning they require the launch aircraft to penetrate closer to hostile defenses

CAR-T cell therapy

• The clinical trial results of India’s first CAR T-cell therapy, published in The Lancet, show that it worked for nearly 73 per cent of patients.

What is CAR-T cell therapy?

• CAR-T cell therapy, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, is an immunotherapy-based cancer treatment that uses the power of a patient’s own immune system to fight cancer. The immune system is the body’s defence network against infections and diseases.
•  White blood cells (WBCs) play a pivotal role in the immune system. 
• A WBCs, or leukocytes, are produced in the bone marrow and circulate in the blood and lymphatic system. The key types of WBCs include: 
• i) Neutrophils – Engulf and destroy pathogens 
• ii) Lymphocytes – Target specific invaders and remember past infections 
• iii) Monocytes – Differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells, ingesting pathogens and presenting antigens 
• iv) Eosinophils – Release enzymes and toxic proteins that kill parasites and modulate inflammatory responses, and 
• v) Basophils – Release histamine and other chemicals that contribute to inflammation and allergic symptoms.

What are T-Cells?

• T-cells are primarily used in CAR-T cell therapy because of their pivotal role in the immune system’s response to pathogens and malignancies.
• These cells can be genetically engineered to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), which are specifically designed to recognise and bind to antigens on the surface of cancer cells. Once bound, these modified T-cells can efficiently kill cancer cells. 
• Other cells like B cells or natural killer cells also play roles in immunity but don’t have the same adaptability and memory capabilities as T cells, making them less effective for the persistent and targeted action required in CAR-T cell therapy.

Anti-microbial resistance

•  Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a condition in which bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites no longer respond to antimicrobial medicines, which include antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics.
• As a result, infections become difficult or impossible to treat, increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, disability and death. It is the result of evolution of microbes in a situation where there is a misuse or overuse of antibiotics.
• According to the World Health Organisation, Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of antibiotics. Bacteria, not humans, become antibiotic resistant.
• These bacteria may then infect humans and are harder to treat than non-resistant bacteria. Antimicrobial resistance is a broader term, encompassing resistance to drugs to treat infections caused by other microbes as well, such as parasites (e.g. malaria), viruses (e.g. HIV) and fungi (e.g. Candida).
• AMR is a condition in which a pathogen can survive and cause infection despite the presence of an antimicrobial treatment. AMR is the result of microbial evolution in response to antibiotic abuse or overuse.
• Excessive use of antimicrobial medications can result in resistant or extremely resistant superbugs that can spread in hospitals, drinking water, and sewers. These microorganisms produce infections that do not respond to regularly recommended antibiotics.

SNOWBLIND MALWARE

• Snowblind is a newly discovered banking malware targeting Android users, specifically designed to steal banking credentials.
• Unlike typical Android malware, Snowblind exploits a built-in security feature known as seccomp (secure computing), which is part of the Linux kernel and Android operating system. This feature is intended to detect tampering attempts within apps, but Snowblind injects malicious code before seccomp initializes, effectively bypassing security checks2.
• Once active, Snowblind can disable biometric authentication and two-factor authentication, two critical security measures used by banking apps to prevent unauthorized access2.
• The malware works by repackaging apps, preventing them from detecting accessibility features that cybercriminals use to extract sensitive information like login credentials and remotely access banking apps2.
• Snowblind primarily infects users who install apps from untrusted sources, making it crucial for Android users to download applications only from reputable platforms like the Google Play Store. Reports suggest that Snowblind is currently most active in Southeast Asia, though its full impact is still being assessed
• Seccomp (secure computing) is a security feature designed to limit the system calls that a process can make, enhancing security by restricting access to potentially dangerous functions.
•  However, Snowblind exploits this mechanism by injecting malicious code before seccomp initializes, allowing it to bypass anti-tamper protections in banking apps.

How Does Snowblind Exploit Seccomp?

• Early Injection – The malware interferes before seccomp is fully activated, preventing apps from detecting and blocking unauthorized modifications.
• Access to Sensitive Information – Since many banking applications rely on seccomp for security checks, Snowblind effectively circumvents this protection to extract credentials.
• Disabling Security Features – Snowblind can turn off biometric authentication and two-factor authentication, exposing users to unauthorized transactions.

Why Is This Dangerous?

• Bypassing App Protections – Many security features depend on seccomp to prevent tampering, but Snowblind overrides them.
• High Impact on Financial Security – Users might unknowingly enter credentials, which are then stolen without triggering security alerts.
• Evasion Techniques – Snowblind hides within modified versions of legitimate apps, making detection difficult.
• To protect yourself, ensure that you only install banking apps from official sources, use strong device-level security settings, and avoid clicking on suspicious links or attachments.
• Seccomp (Secure Computing) is a security mechanism in the Linux kernel designed to restrict system calls that an application can make. It enhances security by preventing malicious processes from accessing certain low-level functions. However, Snowblind malware exploits this feature in a way that bypasses anti-tamper protections in banking apps, making sensitive financial data vulnerable.

How Seccomp Works

• Seccomp allows applications to operate in a restricted mode, blocking access to certain system calls.
• It is primarily used to limit exposure to potential security risks by restricting an app’s ability to interact with the operating system.
• By preventing unauthorized system calls, seccomp helps protect applications from attacks like memory corruption and privilege escalation.

How Snowblind Exploits Seccomp

• Snowblind interferes with the initialization of seccomp, injecting its malicious code before the security feature is fully activated.
• This allows it to disable biometric authentication and two-factor authentication, bypassing crucial security mechanisms in financial apps.
• As a result, the malware can extract banking credentials and manipulate transactions without triggering security alerts

Vermifiltration

• Vermifiltration is an innovative wastewater treatment technology that leverages the natural filtration abilities of epigeic earthworms and microorganisms to remove pollutants from wastewater. This method integrates primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment into a single unit, making it an efficient and eco-friendly alternative to conventional wastewater treatment systems.

How Vermifiltration Works

• Primary Treatment – The system removes sand, silt, and suspended solids, ensuring that large particles are filtered out.
• Secondary Treatment – Biological degradation occurs as microorganisms break down organic matter, reducing biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
• Tertiary Treatment – The process eliminates pathogens, making the treated water safer for reuse.

The Role of the Vermifilter (VF)

• The vermifilter is the core component of vermifiltration, consisting of two key zones:
• Active Zone – This is where earthworms reside, helping to break down organic matter and aerate the system.
• Filter Bed – Microorganisms thrive here, further degrading pollutants and ensuring effective filtration.

Advantages of Vermifiltration

• Eco-Friendly – Uses natural biological processes, reducing reliance on chemicals.
• Low Energy Consumption – Unlike conventional sewage treatment plants, vermifiltration requires minimal energy.
• Odor-Free & Sludge-Free – The system prevents foul odors and eliminates sludge formation, making it more sustainable.
• This technology is gaining attention as a cost-effective and decentralized wastewater treatment solution, particularly in regions facing water scarcity

India’s first communication satellite will be ready by 2028: IN-SPACe Chairman

• India’s first geostationary orbit (GSO) communication satellite of India will be ready in about three years, estimated Pawan Goenka, Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe) Chairman, while speaking to media at the ISRO office in Mumbai.
• “IN-SPACe has facilitated one frequency to be allotted to a private sector player who is now working on launching that satellite. It will probably take about three years before it is launched,”.
• The company in question is Hyderabad-based Ananth Technologies Ltd that has served as a big supplier to ISRO in the past. The company will serve as an operator while other users will lease out the capacity to provide telecom services.
• The project costs over ₹2,000 crore and provides Ananth Technologies with a frequency, owned by the government. IN-SPACe plans to free up 1-2 more such frequencies and inviting more private sector players to come and launch communication satellite.

Communication satellites to lead space economy

• Goenka reiterated the government’s plans that India’s space economy will become a $44 billion economy by 2033.
• “We will bring the space economy from $8 billion to $44 billion by 2033. That would amount to roughly half a per cent of GDP in 2033. Today that number is less than 0.1 per cent perhaps 5.5 fold increase in five years,” said Goenka.
• This expansion will be primarily led by the communication sector contributing $14.8 billion, followed by $9.3 billion by navigation, $8 billion by Earth observation, $4.6 billion by satellite manufacturing, $2.5 billion by ground network and In orbit.
• Goenka estimated that about $2-2.5 billion will be invested in India’s space sector economy every year until 2033.
• “A lot of it will be internal investment by companies like Tata, L&T who are in the space sector are investing their own money. Smaller companies will rely on the investors and government. So, together we will be investing about $22 billion in the space sector by 2033,” .
• He added that, bringing in investment for the space sector is one of IN-SPACe’s biggest challenges, considering investors do not often pay attention to deep-tech, particularly space.
•  For this reason, the government established its own ₹1,000 crore VC fund for space start-ups a few weeks ago. Overall, the government has put in at least ₹3,500 to ₹4,000 crore to help the space industry