Government vs Social Media Platforms: The Debate Over Safe Harbour and Content Regulation

Background

The Indian government has defended its broader interpretation of Section 79 of the Information Technology (IT) Act before the Karnataka High Court, citing the need to regulate online content disseminated via intermediaries such as social media platforms. This legal defense is in response to a petition filed by X (formerly Twitter), challenging the government’s alleged overreach in issuing content takedown orders.

Legal Framework and the Core Dispute

Section 79 vs Section 69A – Key Legal Provisions:

• Section 79: Provides "safe harbour" immunity to intermediaries from liability for third-party content, but this protection can be withdrawn if they fail to comply with takedown requests.
• Section 69A: Empowers the government to block access to content under specific circumstances such as national security or public order, following due process outlined in the IT Blocking Rules of 2009.

X''s Argument:

• The government is allegedly misapplying Section 79 by using it to issue blocking orders, which are exclusively permitted under Section 69A.
• X labels the government’s Sahyog Portal as a "censorship tool", bypassing judicial and procedural safeguards.

Sahyog Portal and Government’s Rationale

What is the Sahyog Portal?

• Developed under the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) by the Union Ministry of Home Affairs.
• By March 2025, 38 intermediaries—including Google, Amazon, Apple, Telegram, and YouTube—have joined the platform; Meta has enabled API integration.
• X has declined participation, citing legal overreach.

Government’s Justification:

• Claims that algorithmic content curation is fundamentally different from editorial oversight in traditional media and thus requires new regulatory frameworks.
• Algorithms can amplify harmful or unlawful content rapidly without human oversight.
• Anonymity and pseudonymity on platforms contribute to incitement and reduce accountability.
• As a result, the government argues for a wider regulatory scope under Section 79 to address a broader range of unlawful content not covered under Section 69A.

Algorithmic Amplification vs Traditional Media Gatekeeping

Government’s Position:

• Algorithmic systems boost content visibility automatically, without conscious editorial decisions.
• This process lacks transparency, accountability, and built-in quality control found in traditional newsrooms or broadcasters.
• Traditional media acted as gatekeepers, which is not the case with social media platforms.

Constitutional Considerations and Societal Impact

Balancing Free Speech and Regulation:

• Section 69A aligns with Article 19(2) of the Constitution, which allows for reasonable restrictions on free speech.
• The government maintains that Section 79 enables broader action against content that violates any Indian law, not just those specified under Article 19(2).
• The emphasis is on protecting societal interests, ensuring public order, and upholding national security while maintaining a balance with individual rights.

Conclusion

The Indian government is asserting an expanded interpretation of Section 79 to strengthen its regulatory hold over digital intermediaries, especially in the context of algorithm-driven content dissemination and user anonymity. This legal battle is poised to shape the future of safe harbour protections, freedom of expression online, platform accountability, and the State’s role in digital governance.

Swachh Survekshan 2024–25: Ahmedabad Emerges as India’s Cleanest City

In a significant reshuffle of urban cleanliness rankings, Ahmedabad has claimed the title of India’s cleanest city in the Swachh Survekshan 2024–25, the country’s largest annual sanitation survey conducted by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA). This marks the first time Ahmedabad has topped the rankings, while Indore, the six-time consecutive leader, has been elevated to a newly introduced ‘Swachh Bharat Super League 1.0’ to honour its consistent performance.

About Swachh Survekshan

• Launched: 2016 under the Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban (SBM-U)
• Objective: Assess urban cleanliness across Indian cities based on several key parameters:
• Citizen feedback
• Waste segregation and processing
• Open defecation-free (ODF) status
• Cleanliness of public spaces
• Use of digital and innovative municipal practices
• Scale (2024–25 Edition):
• Covered over 4,500 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
• Received over 12 crore citizen responses
• Recognized as the world’s largest participatory sanitation survey

Key Rankings and Highlights

Top Cleanest Cities (Population >1 Lakh)

1. Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
2. Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)
3. Surat (Gujarat)

• Indore entered the ‘Swachh Bharat Super League 1.0’ for cities maintaining top-tier sanitation standards over time.

Cleanest Cities (Population <1 Lakh)

1. Sasvad (Maharashtra)
2. Lonavala
3. Vita

Cleanest Ganga Towns

• Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) – Held its position for the fourth consecutive year
• Prayagraj and Bijnor followed closely

Top Performing States

1. Maharashtra
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Chhattisgarh

Gujarat’s Strong Performance

Gujarat made a remarkable impact in this year’s survey:

• Ahmedabad, Surat, and Rajkot all ranked among the top 10 cleanest cities
• Key efforts by the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation:
• Scientific treatment of nearly 100% of solid waste
• Door-to-door waste collection across all city wards
• Citizen engagement platforms, including mobile apps for complaint redressal and cleanliness tracking

Innovations in Swachh Survekshan 2024–25

Several new elements were introduced in this edition:

• AI-based validation tools to verify cleanliness parameters
• Swachhta League to promote youth involvement
• Increased focus on:
• Legacy waste management
• Urban beautification
• Enhanced Garbage-Free Cities (GFC) star ratings
• Use of real-time data from Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs) for monitoring city sanitation efforts

Special Recognitions

Beyond rankings, cities and institutions were recognized for excellence in specific areas:

• Cleanest Cantonment Board: Mhow (Madhya Pradesh)
• Best Citizen Feedback Response: Chandigarh
• Best Innovation in Sanitation: Navi Mumbai (for circular economy initiatives)
• Cleanest State Capital: Bhopal

Broader Impact on Urban Governance

Swachh Survekshan has evolved into more than a ranking mechanism—it serves as a catalyst for urban reform:

• Drives competitive federalism, encouraging inter-city and inter-state competition
• Promotes:
• Waste segregation and recycling
• Behavioural change communication
• Innovation and PPP models in sanitation
• Boosts:
• Employment in the waste management sector
• Entrepreneurship in the circular economy

Conclusion

The 2024–25 edition of Swachh Survekshan reaffirms its role as a transformative tool in India’s urban sanitation landscape. With Ahmedabad rising to the top and Indore setting benchmarks in a new league, the focus now sharpens on sustainability, innovation, and inclusive participation in making Indian cities cleaner and healthier.

PAC Calls for Overhaul of UIDAI’s Functioning

Context:

The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) has recommended a thorough reassessment of the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) following alarming reports of:

• Biometric authentication failures leading to denial of welfare benefits, and
• Potential data breaches, raising serious security and governance concerns.

About the Public Accounts Committee (PAC):

• A parliamentary committee tasked with auditing the Union Government’s accounts, primarily based on reports from the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).
• Composition: 22 Members of Parliament – 15 from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha.
• Leadership: Traditionally chaired by a member from the opposition.
• Term: Reconstituted annually.
• Key Responsibilities:
• Ensure efficient and lawful use of public funds.
• Evaluate the performance of autonomous bodies and PSUs funded by the government.
• Recently examined UIDAI’s functioning based on the CAG’s 2021 audit report.

Major Issues Highlighted by PAC

1. Biometric Verification Failures

• Frequent authentication errors are excluding genuine beneficiaries from welfare schemes like:
• Public Distribution System (PDS)
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
• Primary reasons:
• Worn-out fingerprints among manual laborers
• Iris mismatches in elderly populations

2. Data Security Concerns

• Reports of Aadhaar data leaks on the dark web have raised alarms.
• While UIDAI asserts that its central database is secure, it admits that leaks mostly occur at local enrolment centres due to weak data handling protocols.

3. Duplicate and Inactive Aadhaar Numbers

• The number of Aadhaar IDs exceeds India’s population, indicating issues of duplication.
• Slow deactivation of Aadhaar numbers after death poses a risk of misuse in welfare schemes.

4. Weak Grievance Redressal System

• Citizens encounter significant delays and inefficiencies while:
• Correcting Aadhaar errors
• Resolving authentication failures and account access issues

5. Access by Ineligible Entities

• Several MPs expressed concern over suspected non-citizens obtaining Aadhaar and misusing welfare benefits meant solely for Indian citizens.

Implications of UIDAI’s Operational Gaps

• Social Exclusion: Biometric mismatches deny rightful beneficiaries access to crucial welfare schemes.
• Security Threats: Data leaks and duplication increase the risk of identity theft and fraud.
• Erosion of Public Trust: Frequent failures and breach reports undermine faith in digital governance systems.
• Welfare Leakages: Inactive or fake Aadhaar IDs allow fraudulent access to subsidies.
• Administrative Inefficiency: Delays in grievance redressal and post-death deactivations slow down service delivery.

PAC’s Recommendations

1. Scientific and Technical Audit:
• Conduct a forensic review of UIDAI’s core database to identify and eliminate systemic flaws.
2. Simplify Enrolment Procedures:
• Allow flexible documentation for residents to ensure inclusive access.
3. Improve Data Security Measures:
• Enforce stricter compliance protocols at enrolment and update centres.
• Regularly audit these facilities to prevent localized data leaks.
4. Faster Aadhaar Deactivation After Death:
• Integrate UIDAI systems with state civil registration records to enable automatic Aadhaar deactivation post-death.
5. Inclusive Authentication Alternatives:
• Introduce facial recognition, OTP-based, and assisted authentication models to serve people facing biometric failures.
6. Ensure Beneficiary Citizenship:
• Conduct a review to verify Aadhaar allocation among suspected non-citizens and prevent welfare misuse.

Conclusion

The PAC has rightly raised critical concerns about UIDAI’s operations, particularly its role in inclusive welfare delivery and data security. To maintain public trust in digital identity infrastructure, the government must implement technological upgrades, policy reforms, and robust accountability mechanisms. A secure, error-free, and inclusive Aadhaar system is essential for effective governance and safeguarding citizen rights.

Record-Breaking Black Hole Merger Detected Through Gravitational Waves

In a major breakthrough in astrophysics, scientists have detected gravitational waves from the largest black hole merger ever recorded, a cosmic event that challenges existing scientific theories and expands our understanding of the universe.

Why This Discovery Is Historic

The Event: GW231123

• Named GW231123, the event marks the most massive black hole merger ever observed through gravitational waves.
• It involved the collision of two supermassive black holes:
• One with a mass of 140 times that of the Sun
• The other with 100 solar masses
• Their merger created a new black hole approximately 225 times the Sun’s mass—a size never before detected through this method.

A Scientific Surprise

• This mass range (100–150 solar masses) is known as the “mass gap”, where stars are not expected to form black holes. Instead, current theories suggest they explode in supernovae.
• One of the black holes was spinning at nearly the maximum speed allowed under Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
• The discovery contradicts existing stellar evolution models and provides new data on how massive stars die and how black holes grow.

Gravitational Waves: A New Lens on the Cosmos

What Are Gravitational Waves?

• First predicted by Albert Einstein in 1915, gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime caused by extreme cosmic events like black hole mergers.
• Though all moving objects generate gravitational waves, only massive events produce waves strong enough to be detected on Earth.

Transforming Astronomy

• Before 2015, astronomy relied on electromagnetic radiation—light, X-rays, radio waves—to study celestial phenomena.
• However, many cosmic phenomena (like black holes and dark matter) do not emit light and were largely invisible.
• The detection of gravitational waves opened up a new branch of observational science, allowing scientists to “hear” rather than “see” the universe.

Who Detected It: The LVK Collaboration

LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA

• The first detection of gravitational waves occurred in 2015 by the LIGO observatories in the U.S.
• Since then, a global network has formed, including:
• Virgo in Italy
• KAGRA in Japan
• Together, these form the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA (LVK) collaboration, responsible for the GW231123 discovery.

India’s Role: LIGO-India

Expanding the Global Network

• A third LIGO observatory is planned in India, aiming to enhance the global detection grid.
• Known as LIGO-India, the project:
• Was initially expected to launch in 2024
• Secured final government approval and a ₹2,600 crore budget in 2023
• Will be built in Hingoli district, Maharashtra
• Once operational, LIGO-India will significantly improve the sensitivity and accuracy of gravitational wave detection worldwide.

Conclusion

The detection of GW231123 is more than a record-breaking scientific achievement—it is a moment that redefines what we know about black holes, stellar death, and the structure of the universe. With gravitational wave astronomy gaining momentum and global collaboration expanding, including India’s participation, the field is poised to uncover even deeper cosmic secrets in the years ahead

Russian Sanctions Act, 2025: India Pushes Back Against Proposed U.S. Penalties on Russian Oil Trade

India has strongly opposed a proposed U.S. congressional bill—the Russian Sanctions Act, 2025—which seeks to penalize countries that continue importing Russian energy. The legislation proposes massive tariffs of up to 500% on nations like India that have maintained oil trade with Russia, despite Western sanctions.

Overview of the Proposed Legislation

Introduced by Senator Lindsey Graham with bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress, the bill aims to:

• Intensify pressure on Russia over its ongoing war in Ukraine
• Deter third countries from circumventing Western sanctions by continuing trade in Russian-origin oil, gas, coal, and petrochemicals

Key Features of the Russian Sanctions Act, 2025:

• Section 17: Imposes 500% ad valorem tariffs on Russian-origin energy imports by non-compliant countries
• Secondary sanctions: Targets countries like India, China, and Brazil that continue energy ties with Russia
• Presidential waiver clause: Allows a 6-month delay in sanctions for strategic reasons at the U.S. President’s discretion
• Enforcement timeline: Urges the imposition of sanctions within 50 days, emphasizing swift action

India’s Response and Concerns

Petroleum Minister’s Statement

India’s Petroleum Minister Hardeep Singh Puri reiterated India’s commitment to a diversified energy portfolio, importing oil from over 40 countries. He asserted that India would navigate any future challenges, emphasizing its sovereign right to secure affordable energy.

MEA’s Position

India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) rejected what it called “double standards,” stressing that national interest guides India’s energy policy. India remains committed to market-based sourcing and affordable energy access for its citizens.

Trade Data and Exposure

• In FY 2024–25, India-Russia bilateral trade surged to $68.7 billion, nearly six times its pre-pandemic level.
• India’s major imports include crude oil, fertilizers, coal, and petroleum products.
• In May 2025 alone, India imported $4.42 billion worth of crude oil from Russia.

While the threat of sanctions looms, Indian officials emphasize their ability to pivot to alternative suppliers and question the feasibility of such steep penalties.

Geopolitical Reactions and Western Tensions

Trump’s Renewed Stance on Russia

U.S. President Donald Trump, now adopting a tougher line on Russia, has threatened secondary sanctions if Moscow doesn’t end the Ukraine war within 50 days. His administration has signaled that countries aiding Russia economically—like India—may face direct consequences.

NATO Pressure

NATO chief Mark Rutte echoed similar concerns, urging India to pressure Russia toward peace negotiations to avoid possible sanctions and economic fallout.

Mixed Signals in the West

Trump’s approach has generated divided opinions in Western circles:

• Some view it as a positive shift from his earlier reluctance to support Ukraine
• Others worry the 50-day deadline could backfire, allowing Russia to gain ground militarily before any diplomatic talks
• Critics also cite a lack of clarity and timelines in Trump’s enforcement plan
• His core MAGA base feels alienated, seeing this as a departure from his anti-interventionist promises

Should India Be Worried?

Despite the aggressive posture from Washington, several factors may temper the threat of sanctions:

1. Energy Diversification: India has broad supplier options and claims it can shift purchases if needed.
2. US-India Trade Talks: A major trade deal is under negotiation, and sanctions could jeopardize it.
3. China’s Position: Russia’s largest trade partner is China—any sanctions against major economies could spark wider geopolitical fallout.
4. Energy Market Stability: Penalizing Russian oil buyers could disrupt global markets, potentially backfiring on the U.S. and its allies.

Conclusion

The Russian Sanctions Act, 2025 reflects growing Western impatience over the limited impact of current sanctions on Russia’s economy. India, with its rising oil imports from Russia, finds itself in the crosshairs but has made clear that national energy security remains its top priority. As global tensions escalate, the bill raises critical questions about sovereignty, economic diplomacy, and the evolving rules of international engagement in a multipolar world.

Rise in Dowry Deaths Highlights Deep Social and Legal Failures

Context:

A disturbing increase in dowry-related deaths in states like Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Chandigarh has sparked national concern, exposing the persistence of regressive social norms and serious shortcomings in the criminal justice system.

What Are Dowry Deaths?

• Definition: Dowry deaths refer to the murder or suicide of a woman due to prolonged harassment or violence by her husband or in-laws over unfulfilled dowry demands.
• Legal Framework:
• Covered under Section 80 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)
• Also penalized under the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

Data & Trends (2017–2022):

• Annual Average: Around 7,000 dowry deaths reported every year (NCRB data)
• Dowry-Linked Murders: Over 6,100 murders during this period were directly attributed to dowry demands
• Investigation Status (2022):
• Only ~4,500 cases charge-sheeted annually
• Over 3,000 cases still under investigation
• 67% of these cases remained pending for more than six months
• Conviction Rate:
• Barely 100 convictions per year from nearly 6,500 trial cases
• Regional Concentration:
• Over 80% of dowry deaths occurred in:
• Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and Haryana
• Urban Hotspot:
• Delhi accounted for 30% of dowry deaths among 19 major Indian cities

Key Concerns:

• Legal Delays and Low Conviction Rates: Undermine deterrence and justice
• Gender-Based Violence Normalization: Cultural and familial complicity often prevent women from reporting abuse
• Enforcement Gaps: Weak implementation of the Dowry Prohibition Act enables continued misuse

Conclusion:

The spike in dowry deaths is a grim reminder that deep-rooted patriarchy and legal lethargy continue to undermine women’s rights. Systemic reforms, faster trials, better victim protection, and societal awareness are essential to combat this persistent form of gender-based violence.

Supreme Court Upholds Equal Inheritance Rights for Tribal Women

Context:

In a landmark verdict in Ram Charan & Ors. vs. Sukhram & Ors., the Supreme Court of India has upheld the equal succession rights of tribal women, ruling that customary exclusion from inheritance violates the Constitution.

Key Highlights of the Judgment:

• Violation of Fundamental Rights:
• Denying tribal women inheritance based on custom violates Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution (equality and non-discrimination).
• Supported by Articles 38 and 46, which advocate social justice and protection for disadvantaged groups.
• Non-Applicability of Hindu Succession Act Not a Barrier:
• Although the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 does not extend to Scheduled Tribes, this does not justify blanket denial of rights.
• Courts must step in to apply equity, justice, and good conscience in the absence of codified law.
• Importance of Proving Custom:
• Customs must be proven with clarity and consistency in court to be valid.
• Vague or regressive customs cannot override constitutional protections.

Judicial Precedents Cited:

• Mst. Sarwango v. Mst. Urchamahin (2013): Directed inheritance rights for daughters on equitable grounds.
• Tirith Kumar v. Daduram (2024): Affirmed tribal women''s right to ancestral property based on fairness and constitutional values.

Significance of the Ruling:

• Breaks Legal Silence: Offers legal clarity on a matter where the Hindu Succession Act does not apply, filling a crucial gap.
• Upholds Gender Justice: Affirms that tribal identity does not exempt one from constitutional protections.
• Corrects Historical Injustices: Reverses courts'' earlier reluctance to interfere in tribal customs, setting a progressive precedent.

On Custom as a Source of Law:

• Role of Custom: Customs are among the oldest sources of law and govern social behavior.
• Legal Validity: To be legally enforceable, a custom must be:
• Reasonable
• Morally acceptable
• Consistently followed
• Problematic Customs: Practices like sati, child marriage, and triple talaq are examples of customs rejected for violating public conscience and constitutional morality.

Conclusion:

The Supreme Court’s ruling marks a transformative step toward gender equality in tribal communities. By affirming that constitutional values trump discriminatory customs, it paves the way for more inclusive and equitable jurisprudence for India’s marginalized groups.

CARA Directs States to Strengthen Counselling at All Stages of Child Adoption

Context:

The Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) has issued new directives to State Adoption Resource Agencies (SARAs) to enhance psychosocial counselling support throughout the adoption process. These instructions are in line with the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 (as amended in 2021) and the Adoption Regulations, 2022.

Key Directions to SARAs:

1. Strengthen Counselling for All Stakeholders:
• CARA has called for a robust psychosocial support framework to assist:
• Prospective Adoptive Parents (PAPs)
• Adopted Children
• Biological Parents
2. Appointment of Qualified Counsellors:
• SARAs must designate or empanel trained counsellors at both State and District levels to provide continuous support during and after the adoption process.
3. Support in Other Circumstances:
• Specialised Adoption Agencies (SAAs) and District Child Protection Units (DCPUs) are empowered to assess and provide psychosocial interventions in any other situation requiring support, beyond standard procedures.

Child Adoption in India: Legal and Institutional Framework

• Nodal Authority:
• Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) is the central ministry responsible for child adoption policies and implementation.
• Key Legislations Governing Adoption:

1.     Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (HAMA), 1956

2.     Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000 (amended in 2015 and 2021)

Adoption provisions under the JJ Act apply to all religions, unlike HAMA which is specific to Hindus.

Central Regulatory Body – CARA:

• CARA is a statutory body under MWCD, functioning as the central nodal authority for both:
• In-country (domestic) adoptions
• Inter-country (international) adoptions
• Mandates and Responsibilities:
• Regulates and monitors the entire adoption process to ensure transparency, legality, and ethical compliance.
• Ensures adherence to Adoption Regulations, 2022.
• Designated as the Central Authority under the Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Cooperation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption (1993).
• India ratified the Convention in 2003 to align with international standards and prevent child trafficking in inter-country adoptions.

State and Local Implementation Bodies:

Under the JJ Act, adoption is operationalised at the local level by:

• State Adoption Resource Agencies (SARAs): Coordinate and monitor adoption-related activities at the state level.
• Child Welfare Committees (CWCs): Declare children legally free for adoption and act as the final authority on their welfare.
• District Child Protection Units (DCPUs): Provide on-ground support and are responsible for child protection and family-based care services.

Conclusion:

CARA’s directive to fortify counselling support at every stage of adoption marks a critical step toward more child-sensitive and inclusive adoption processes. By mandating qualified psychological support for all stakeholders, it seeks to address emotional, legal, and social challenges faced by adoptive families and children, reinforcing ethical standards in line with domestic law and international conventions.

Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI)

Context:

Former U.S. President Donald Trump was recently diagnosed with Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI), a circulatory condition that impairs blood flow from the legs back to the heart.

What is CVI?

• CVI occurs when the valves in leg veins fail to function properly, causing blood to flow backward and pool in the legs.
• Though not always life-threatening, CVI can lead to:
• Pain and swelling
• Muscle cramps
• Skin changes
• Varicose veins
• Leg ulcers

Risk Factors:

• Higher likelihood in individuals who are:
• Overweight
• Pregnant
• Have a family history
• Also common among those with:
• Previous leg injuries
• Past surgeries
• History of blood clots

Prevalence and Demographics:

• Affects approximately 1 in 20 adults, more commonly in older individuals, with risk increasing with age.

Treatment Options:

• Lifestyle modifications such as:
• Regular physical activity
• Elevating the legs
• Maintaining a healthy weight

·       Medical interventions:

• Medications to improve blood circulation
• Compression therapy using tight bandages or stockings
• In severe cases, surgical procedures may be necessary.

Protostar Discovery by IIST

Context:

Researchers from the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram, have identified radio emissions with circular polarisation from a massive young protostar, around 4,500 light-years away.

What is a Protostar?

• A protostar is an early-stage celestial object formed from contracting gas and dust in a molecular cloud.
• The gravitational collapse of the cloud increases internal pressure, converting gravitational energy into heat.
• This phase lasts between 100,000 to 10 million years, depending on mass.

Formation Timeline:

1. Starts with density buildup in the molecular cloud.
2. Ends with a pre-main-sequence star.
• Example: T-Tauri stars are solar-mass pre-main-sequence stars.

Transition to Main Sequence Star:

• Once hydrogen fusion ignites in the core, the protostar evolves into a main sequence star.

Observation Challenges:

• Protostars are enveloped in dust, blocking visible light, making them observable primarily in radio or infrared wavelengths.

Akash Prime Missile

Context:

India recently successfully intercepted two high-speed aerial targets at high altitudes in Ladakh using the Akash Prime missile.

About Akash Prime:

• An upgraded variant of the Akash surface-to-air missile system, tailored for high-altitude deployment.
• Designed to defend mobile, semi-mobile, and static installations.

Key Features:

• Medium-range surface-to-air missile.
• New indigenous Radio Frequency (RF) seeker enables accurate targeting during terminal flight.
• Effective range: 25–30 km.
• Engineered for reliable performance in low-temperature, high-altitude environments (above 4,500 metres).
• Enhancements based on feedback from armed forces.

Hydrogen Peroxide Innovation

• Context:

Scientists have developed a novel technique using Mo-DHTA COF, a dimolybdenum-based material, to synthesize hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) from water and sunlight.

About Hydrogen Peroxide:

• A colorless liquid with a bitter taste, occurring naturally in trace amounts in the air.
• Breaks down into water and oxygen, making it eco-friendly.

• Properties:
• Unstable and decomposes readily.
• Non-flammable, but a strong oxidizing agent that can cause spontaneous combustion in contact with organic materials.

Common Uses:

• Household (3–9% concentration): Antiseptics, bleaching agents.
• Industrial:
• Textile and paper bleaching
• Rocket fuel
• Foam rubber and organic chemical production

Environmental Concerns:

• Conventional production methods are energy-intensive and hazardous.
• The new method aims to cut costs, reduce environmental impact, and support green chemistry.

Agni-I and Prithvi-II Missiles

Context

India conducted successful test-firings of its nuclear-capable short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs)—Agni-I and Prithvi-II—from the Integrated Test Range, Chandipur, Odisha, a day after testing the Akash Prime in Ladakh.

Overview

• Developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) by DRDO.
• Tested under the Strategic Forces Command to assess operational readiness.

Objectives

• Validate:
• Combat and strategic readiness
• Accuracy and deterrence capability
• Second-strike capacity
• Reinforce India’s nuclear posture post-May 2025 Indo-Pak tensions.

Prithvi-II Features

• Range: ~350 km
• Payload: Up to 500 kg
• Warheads: Conventional or nuclear
• Guidance: Inertial navigation system
• Launch Platform: Road-mobile
• Speed: Over Mach 1

Agni-I Features

• Range: 700–900 km
• Payload: Up to 1,000 kg
• Warheads: Both types
• Deployed by: Indian Army (since early 2000s)
• Role: Key to India’s Minimum Credible Deterrence

Kerala’s KITE Initiative

Context

Kerala’s KITE initiative has received national and international recognition for the ethical use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in school education. UNICEF has acknowledged it as a global best practice in responsible EdTech.

What is KITE?

Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education (KITE) is the technology implementation wing of the state’s General Education Department, established to ethically integrate digital tools, including AI, into public education.

Objectives

• Promote equitable, transparent, and open-source AI adoption.
• Ensure teacher empowerment and student data protection.

Major Features

• Massive Teacher Training: Over 80,000 teachers from Classes 8–12 trained in:
• AI bias detection
• Privacy issues
• Curriculum alignment
• FOSS Adoption: More than 15,000 schools use Free and Open-Source Software, enhancing autonomy and transparency.
• Samagra Plus AI Platform: Kerala’s proprietary Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) AI engine, developed by expert teachers to align with the curriculum.
• Student Innovation: Little KITEs IT Clubs train students in robotics and AI via practical learning.
• Bias Resistance & Data Sovereignty: Uses in-house infrastructure and open datasets to avoid commercial surveillance and algorithmic bias.

Poshan Tracker App

Context:

Anganwadi workers are facing technical and connectivity issues while using the Poshan Tracker App for beneficiary registration and service delivery.

About the App:

• Launched on March 1, 2021, by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
• Developed by the National eGovernance Division.
• It is a mobile-based platform for:
• Anganwadi Centres (AWCs)
• Anganwadi Workers (AWWs)
• Registered beneficiaries

Purpose:

• To improve the efficiency of nutrition service delivery under Poshan Abhiyaan by:
• Capturing real-time data
• Tracking service status
• Enabling field-based updates

Core Features:

• Tracks nutrition indicators for children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers.
• Allows Anganwadi workers to:
• Record attendance
• Distribute nutritional supplements
• Update health data in real time
• Government receives real-time analytics for decision-making.

About Poshan Abhiyaan (Launched 2018):

• A multi-ministerial initiative targeting malnutrition.
• Focuses on:
• Adolescent girls
• Pregnant and lactating women
• Children (0–6 years)

Objectives:

• Reduce stunting, undernutrition, anaemia, and low birth weight.
• Improve nutrition using:
• Technology
• Community participation
• Inter-ministerial coordination

Reykjanes Peninsula Volcanic Activity

Context:

The Reykjanes Peninsula in southwest Iceland recently experienced its ninth volcanic eruption since late 2023, as reported by local meteorological agencies.

Geological Features:

• Located where the Mid-Atlantic Ridge emerges above sea level.
• Marked by:
• Lava fields
• Geothermal features
• Cone-shaped volcanic mountains

Seismic and Volcanic Activity:

• The peninsula sits at the junction of North American and Eurasian tectonic plates, causing frequent minor earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Eruptions have become more frequent since 2021.

Population and Heritage:

• Sparsely populated, except for the Reykjavik metropolitan area.
• Home to the Reykjanes Geopark, a UNESCO Global Geopark.
• Notable site: Gunnuhver Geothermal Field.

Mount Kilimanjaro

Context:

The Defence Secretary of India recently flagged off mountaineering expeditions to Mount Everest and Mount Kilimanjaro from New Delhi.

About Mount Kilimanjaro:

• Africa’s highest peak and the world’s tallest free-standing mountain (not part of a range).
• Location: Northeast Tanzania, near the Kenya border.
• Width: ~80 km (east to west).

Volcanic Structure:

• A stratovolcano comprising three cones:
• Kibo (dormant and tallest)
• Mawenzi (extinct)
• Shira (extinct)
• Uhuru Peak (on Kibo) is the highest point in Africa.

Natural Features:

• Famous for its snow-capped summit.
• Five vegetation zones from base to peak:
1. Lower Slopes
2. Montane Forest
3. Heath and Moorland
4. Alpine Desert
5. Summit

Conservation Status:

• Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 as part of Kilimanjaro National Park.

Global Wetland Outlook 2025 – Ramsar Convention

Key Findings

• Coverage: Over 1,800 million hectares of wetlands globally.
• Degradation: 22% of global wetlands lost since 1970.
• Poorer conditions noted in LICs and LMICs, especially in Africa.

Challenges

• Urbanization
• Industrialization
• Infrastructure development

Best Practices

• Regional Flyway Initiative: $3B project restoring 140+ wetlands.
• Seychelles Blue Bond: World’s first sovereign "blue bond" for ocean conservation.

Recommendations

• Integrate wetlands into national natural capital planning.
• Embed wetlands into green and blue financial instruments.

Ramsar Convention (1971)

• India joined in 1982
• Promotes wise use and conservation of wetland ecosystems.

Polavaram-Banakacherla Link Project

Context

The Centre will establish a high-level technical committee to address unresolved inter-state river disputes between Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

About the Polavaram Project

• Location: Godavari River, Andhra Pradesh
• Aims:
• Irrigation
• Drinking water
• Hydropower
• Diverting water to Krishna Basin to support Rayalaseema

Controversy

• Telangana alleges violations of the 2014 AP Reorganisation Act over river sharing.

Legal Framework

• Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (1956)
• River Boards Act (1956)
• Article 262 of the Constitution (dispute adjudication by tribunal, not courts)
• Entry 56 (Union List): Empowers Centre over inter-state water regulation

Urban Wind Stilling Effect

Key Finding

A recent study has revealed that the Urban Wind Stilling Effect contributes to the formation of Urban Aerosol Clean Islands (UACIs) in northern India.

Key Observations

• 43% of cities in northwest and northern Indo-Gangetic Plains have lower aerosol levels compared to adjacent rural areas.
• These urban centers are classified as Urban Aerosol Clean Islands.

What Are Aerosols?

• Aerosols are suspensions of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas.
• Common examples include fog, smoke, and clouds.

Understanding the Urban Wind Stilling Effect

• Caused by urban infrastructure that weakens surface wind speeds.
• This creates invisible wind barriers that reduce the movement of long-range dust and pollutants into the cities.

Trade Connect ePlatform

Recent Development

The Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry participated in two major B2B trade exhibitions this month to promote the Trade Connect ePlatform and encourage its adoption among stakeholders.

Overview

The Trade Connect ePlatform is a digital initiative launched by the DGFT aimed at reshaping India''s international trade ecosystem, particularly for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).

• Key Features

• Acts as an integrated information and service hub for all international trade stakeholders.
• Facilitates connections between Indian exporters, MSMEs, entrepreneurs, and:
• Indian Missions Abroad
• Export Promotion Councils
• Partner Government Agencies
• Offers real-time information on:
• Global trade events
• Benefits from India’s Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)
• Tariff structures, certifications, eCommerce, and potential buyers
• Includes interactive training modules across multiple languages to guide MSMEs on export procedures.
• Functions as a single window for issuing and validating preferential and non-preferential certificates of origin through a secure, paperless process.

• Development Partners

The platform is developed in collaboration with:

• Ministry of MSME
• EXIM Bank
• Department of Financial Services (DFS)
• Ministry of External Affairs (MEA

Global Findex 2025 – World Bank Report

India-Specific Highlights

• Account Ownership: Nearly 90% of Indian adults have bank accounts.
• Inactive Accounts: 16% have inactive accounts (vs. 4% global LMIC average).
• Gender Gap Reduction: Decline in inactive accounts among both men and women.
• Barriers:
• Mobile phone costs
• Network unreliability

National Financial Reporting Authority (NFRA)

Recent Development

The Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC) has appointed a new Chairperson to the National Financial Reporting Authority (NFRA).

Overview of NFRA

• Established: In 2018 under the Companies Act, 2013
• Headquarters: New Delhi

Core Functions

• Recommend accounting and auditing standards for companies.
• Monitor and enforce compliance with such standards.
• Ensure the quality of service provided by accounting professionals.
• Perform any other functions necessary to fulfill its mandate in corporate financial regulation.

Group of Friends (GoF) – UN Peacekeepers

Context

India reaffirmed its commitment to justice for crimes against UN peacekeepers at a high-level GoF meeting at the UN Headquarters, calling accountability a strategic necessity.

About GoF

• An informal coalition of about 40 UN member states, co-chaired by India and nations from Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• Launched in December 2022, during India’s UNSC Presidency.

Goals

• Advocate for legal/policy mechanisms to prosecute crimes against peacekeepers.
• End impunity and protect mission integrity.
• Support UNSC Resolution 2589 (2021), which mandates accountability.

Functions

• Encourage intergovernmental and expert dialogues.
• Strengthen investigation and legal tracking mechanisms.
• Promote reports from the UN Secretary-General.

Significance

• Safeguards peacekeepers in volatile areas.
• Highlights India’s contribution of over 300,000 troops and 182 martyrs.
• Upholds the interests of Global South personnel in peacekeeping.

India–Bolivia Cooperation

Context

India delivered 300,000 Measles-Rubella vaccine doses to Bolivia to support its response to an ongoing health emergency.

Bolivia Overview

• Location: Landlocked country in west-central South America.
• Capitals: La Paz (administrative), Sucre (constitutional)
• Borders: Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Peru

Geographical Features

• Andes Mountains: Cordillera Occidental & Oriental; Mt. Sajama (6,542 m)
• Altiplano: High plateau (~12,000 ft), includes Lake Titicaca
• Uyuni Salt Flats: World''s largest (~10,400 sq.km)
• Amazon Drainage: Rivers like Mamoré and Beni
• Lowlands: Chaco (hot south), Oriente (tropical north)

India–Bolivia Relations

• Health Diplomacy: India supports Bolivia under South-South Cooperation.
• Strategic Cooperation: Includes ties in multilateral platforms (G77, NAM).
• Energy: Bolivia’s lithium reserves make it a key partner in energy tech.

SIMBEX Naval Exercise

Upcoming Participation

The Indian Navy is set to participate in the 32nd edition of the Singapore-India Maritime Bilateral Exercise (SIMBEX) in Singapore.

About SIMBEX

• Inception: Originally started as Exercise Lion King in 1994.
• Nature: Annual bilateral naval exercise between the Indian Navy and the Republic of Singapore Navy.

• Significance
• One of India’s longest-running uninterrupted naval exercises.
• Reflects India’s commitment to:
• Vision SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region)
• Act East Policy