State of Global Air (SoGA) 2025

The State of Global Air (SoGA) 2025 report released by the Health Effects Institute (HEI) and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), United States.

Key findings about air pollution in India

• Mortality: Around 2 million deaths in 2023 linked to air pollution, a 43% rise since 2000, and 52% of the global share.
• Ozone Pollution: India has third highest exposure to ozone pollution. 
• Exposure: 75% population exposed to PM2.5 above WHO limits.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Modelling studies suggest that transitioning all PMUY households to exclusive LPG use would avert more than 150,000 deaths annually.

Early Warnings for All (EW4All) - WMO

At the Congress, WMO alsoreleased “Early Warnings for All in Focus: Hazard Monitoring and Forecasting” report, tracking progress in detection, monitoring, and forecasting capabilities.

• Report highlights gaps in basic forecasting capacity, low compliance with Global Basic Observation Network (GBON), and limited satellite data usage. 

Early Warnings for All (EW4All) initiative

• Aim: Ensure universal protection from hazardous hydrometeorological, climatological and related environmental events through life-saving multi-hazard early warning systems by 2027.
• Launched: At COP27 of UNFCCC in 2022 by the UN Secretary-General.
• Organizations: It is jointly led by WMO, UNDRR, ITU and IFRC.
• Coverage: Initially focused on 30 high-risk countries, EW4All has since expanded to more than 100 participating nations.

Early Warning System (EWS)

• EWS is an integrated system of hazard monitoring, forecasting, disaster risk assessment, communication and preparedness which aims at enabling early action to save and protect lives, livelihoods and assets of people at risk.
• Need for Early Warning: 
• The damage caused by a disaster can be reduced by 30% if an early warning is issued within 24 hours. 
• Disaster mortality is six times higher and the number of people affected is four times higher in countries with limited multi-hazard early warning systems.  
• Economic damages from extreme weather events continue to surge, with over US$4 trillion in losses globally since 1970.

Kartarpur Corridor Agreement

• India and Pakistan renew the Kartarpur Corridor agreement until 2029. The agreement is valid initially for five years.

Kartarpur Corridor Agreement

• The first agreement was signed in October 2019 to allows visa-free travel through corridor.
• Open for Indian pilgrims of all faiths (with valid passport) & persons of Indian origin (with OCI card).
• It is open from dawn to dusk. Pilgrims travelling in the morning will have to return on the same day.

MeitY proposed amendments to the IT Rules, 2021 to regulate AI-generated Content

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has proposed amendments to the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 (IT Rules, 2021) by exercising power under the Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act).

Key Proposed Amendments:

• Defining Synthetically Generated Information (commonly known as deepfake or AI-generated Content): It is information that is artificially or algorithmically created, generated, modified or altered using a computer resource, in a manner that appears reasonably authentic or true.
• Mandatory Declaration: Content creators must clearly label all AI-generated or modified content before upload.
• Enhanced Obligations for Significant Social Media Intermediaries(SSMIs): E.g., Obtain a user declaration on whether uploaded information is synthetically generated

Need of Proposed Amendments

• National Security Risk: Deepfakes can be used for spreading propaganda by anti-national forces, terrorist recruitment, etc. 
• Spreading Misinformation: E.g., Used to spread false narratives, manipulate public opinion, and influence elections.
• Gender-Based Harm: E.g., Deepfakes frequently targets women, leading to non-consensual explicit content and harassment.
• Defamation: Can damage the reputation of individuals or institutions through fabricated videos or statements.
• Fraud & Impersonation: Enables identity theft, financial scams, and social engineering attacks. E.g., Deepfake phishing

Eye on Methane

UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) releases fifth edition of its International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) publication - An Eye on Methane: From measurement to momentum.

Key Highlights

• Atmospheric methane continues to be the second biggest driver of climate change  after carbon dioxide, responsible for about one-third of the planet’s warming.
• High Impact Gas: Methane is over 80 times more potent than CO₂ over 20 years but persists for a shorter period (7-12 years).
• Major Sources: About 60% of today’s methane emissions result from human activities with agriculture, fossil fuels, and landfill waste being the largest contributors.
• Natural Sources: Natural processes contribute ~40% of emissions, with wetlands as the largest source.

Shadow Fleet

• India has been painted as a host of a shadow fleet that is ‘laundering’ Russian crude.

• ‘Shadow fleet’, also known as dark fleet, comprises ships engaged in illegal operations to avoid detection and circumvent sanctions.

Tactics used by Shadow Fleets

Diamond dust to cool Earth

• Spraying diamond dust in the Earth’s upper atmosphere could help cool down the Earth by a significant 1.6°C within 50 years.
• Diamond dust reflects light and heat. The dust could remain aloft for suitable lengths of time and is less likely to clump together to retain heat. It would not create acid rain because it is chemically inert.
• However, cost and logistical challenges limit its potential use.

Sevilla Forum on Debt launched at UNCTAD16 to tackle the entrenched debt crisis in developing countries

The forum is launched at the 16th session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD16) to tackle the entrenched debt crisis in developing countries. 

• It is led by Spain, supported by the UNCTAD and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA). 
• It will bring together all stakeholders, creditors, borrowers, international financial institutions and academia on debt sustainability, management and innovative solutions.
• Itis one of the outcomes of the Fourth International Conference on Financing for Development (FfD4) and part of Sevilla Platform for Action. 
• The other three outcomes are Debt Swaps for Development Hub, Debt-for-Development Swap Programme, and Debt “Pause Clause” Alliance. 
• This initiative will complement the Sevilla Commitment. 
• Sevilla Commitment lays out a path to close the $4 trillion annual SDG financing gap in developing countries. 
• It is the first inter-governmentally agreed financing for development framework since 2015. 

Debt Crisis

• Global public debt: In 2024, global public debt reached $102 trillion (developing countries burden-US$ 31 trillion)
• Developing countries spend $1.4 trillion on annual debt service.
• Over 3.4 billion people live in nations spending more on debt servicing than on health or education.

Vegetable Oil Products, Production and Availability (Regulation) Order, 2011 (VOPPA Order)

The Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution has amended the Vegetable Oil Products, Production and Availability (Regulation) Order, 2011 (VOPPA Order).

Amendment

• It mandates registration of all stakeholders involved in the processing chain of edible oil. 
• Mandates submission of monthly production and stock returns through the designated online portal.

Edible oil sector in India

• India ranks fourth in the world after the United States, China, and Brazil in the edible vegetable oil market.
• India contributes about 5-6% of the world''s oilseeds production.
• However, India imports 57% of its edible oil demand.

Clean energy accelerates for BRICS grouping

• BRICS nations are poised to see fossil fuel capacity drop below half of their installed power capacity by the end of 2024, as per Global Energy Monitor report.

Key Findings

• Share of power capacity in the BRICS group fueled by coal, oil, and gas could fall below 50% by year end. However, despite fossil-fueled power capacity losing ground in the BRICS’ power mix, virtually all members are building additional coal, oil, or gas plants.
• Wind and utility-scale solar capacity in development outnumber power projects fueled by coal, oil, and gas by two to one in the BRICS.
• BRICS nations will nearly triple their renewable energy capacity by 2030, aligning with the global goal set at 28th Conference of Parties or COP28
• The total renewable energy capacity could increase by more than 2.5 times by the decade’s end.

Relevance of BRICS in clean energy transition

• BRICS countries make up half of the world’s power capacity. Amongst the top ten coal producers globally, China, India, South Africa and Russia account for 99% of operating coal capacity.
• Coal has the largest share of total power capacity in China (41%), India (51%) & South Africa (70%).
• Russia, Egypt, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates are among the top ten oil and gas producers globally.

Global Forest Resources Assessment (GFRA) 2025

Report, released every five years, was published during Global Forest Observations Initiative (GFOI) Plenary in Bali, Indonesia. 

• GFOI is a flagship programme of the Group on Earth Observations (GEO), which is a network of governments, academia, organizations, civil society and private sector aiming to harness the power of Earth Intelligence.
• India is a member of GEO. 

Key highlights of GFRA 2025

• Forest extent: Forests cover 4.14 billion hectares, or 32% of the global land area. 
• Nearly half of the world’s forests are located in the tropics, followed by boreal, temperate and subtropical domains.
• Europe has the largest forest area, accounting for 25% of world’s total. 
• India’s Forest Extent: India moved up one rank to 9^th position in terms of total forest area globally, accounting for 2% of global forest area. 
• India ranks 5^th in terms of rubber plantation. 
• Deforestation and expansion: Deforestation slowed to 10.9 million hectares per year in 2015–2025, down from 17.6 million in 1990–2000. 
• Natural Regeneration: More than 90% of world’s forests are regenerating naturally. 
• Carbon Stock: Forest carbon stocks have increased, reaching 714 gigatonnes, with soil holding majority forest carbon stock, followed by living biomass, and litter and deadwood.
• Disturbances:Fire is prevalent forest disturbance in subtropics while insects, diseases and severe weather affect mainly the temperate and boreal domains.

Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) 1958

• AFSPA extended in 4 districts of Assam amid recent turmoil in Bangladesh.

History of AFSPA

• British Ordinance 1942: It was enacted during WW II to control the Indian independence movement.
• Initial Imposition in Naga Hills in 1958 was primarily to address rising insurgencies and to restore order amid violent separatist movements led by the Naga National Council (NNC).
• Expansion to Other Northeastern States (1960s-1980s) AFSPA was extended to other northeastern states, including Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya.
• Extension to Jammu and Kashmir in 1990 amid an increase in militancy and separatist movements, particularly with the rise of armed insurgent groups like Hizbul Mujahideen and Lashkar-e-Taiba.
• Amendments to the AFSPA in 1972, allowed the central government to declare any area as “disturbed” and to apply AFSPA without consent from the respective state governments.

Recent impositions and withdrawals

• Withdrawal in Tripura (2015) due to significant improvements in law and order and a decline in insurgency-related violence, indicating a shift towards normalcy in the region.
• Withdrawal in Meghalaya (2018) as the state reported a peaceful environment with reduced violence from insurgent groups, reflecting progress in reconciliation and strengthening civil governance.
• Extended the AFSPA by The Union Home Ministry in parts of Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh for an additional 6 months, effective from October 1, 2024.

Features of the AFSPA

• Declaration of Disturbed Areas under Section 3 of AFSPA by the Governor, UT Administrator, or the Central Government can through a notification in the Official Gazette.
• Special Powers for Armed Forces: Section 4 grants armed forces personnel special powers to use force, including lethal measures, against individuals violating laws or engaging in unlawful activities.
• Powers of Arrest without Warrant: Empowers armed forces to arrest individuals without a warrant if there is reasonable suspicion of their involvement in unlawful activities.
• Search and Seizure: Permits armed forces to enter and search premises without a warrant, facilitating swift action against insurgents or lawbreakers.
• Prohibition of Assembly: Prohibits gatherings of five or more individuals in disturbed areas, aiming to prevent potential unrest or violence.
• Immunity from Prosecution: Section 6 Provides legal protection to armed forces personnel from prosecution for actions taken under AFSPA unless the Central Government allows it.
• Periodic Review: The status of disturbed areas and the necessity of AFSPA are subject to periodic review by the government, allowing for adjustments based on the prevailing law-and-order situation.

Positive implications of AFSPA

• Operational Flexibility: The powers under AFSPA allow for fast action without legal delays. In 2017, an operation in Nagaland under AFSPA led to the elimination of several key insurgents from NSCN-K.
• Legal Protection: AFSPA provides immunity to armed forces personnel from prosecution, allowing them to perform their duties without fear of legal reprisals.
• Ensuring National Security by securing areas vulnerable to insurgency and foreign threats. Operations in Manipur under AFSPA have been instrumental in curbing drug trafficking from the Golden Triangle.
• Deterring Insurgency: The presence of AFSPA creates a deterrence against anti-national activities and strengthens security in border areas.
• Restoring Political Stability where civilian administration is weak due to insurgency. AFSPA in Assam helped stabilize the state and allowed for the conduct of elections.

Challenges of AFSPA

• Human Rights Violations: As of 2020, there were more than 1,500 extrajudicial killings attributed to AFSPA in Manipur (as per the Supreme Court’s data).
• Alienation of Local Populations: The continued presence of armed forces under AFSPA often leads to alienation and mistrust among civilians.
• Prolonged Enforcement: AFSPA has been in force for decades in certain areas without showing substantial improvement in peace. Nagaland has been under AFSPA since 1958, yet insurgency persists.
• Psychological Impact on Civilians: Continuous military presence affects the mental health of local populations, instilling fear and trauma.
• Judicial Criticism: SC 2016 ruling questioned justification behind excessive use of force under AFSPA.

Way Forward

• Phased Withdrawal as law-and-order situations improve. AFSPA was lifted from Tripura, Meghalaya and some parts of north eastern states after a significant reduction in insurgent activities.
• Strengthening Accountability for independent investigations. The 2005 Jeevan Reddy Committee recommended the repeal of AFSPA and replacing it with a more humane legal framework.
• Balancing Security and Rights for not infringing on fundamental rights. The Supreme Court’s ruling on “encounter killings” (2016) emphasized human rights in AFSPA regions.
• Political Dialogue with insurgent groups can help in reducing dependence on military measures. E.g. Naga peace accord 2015 Indian government and the National Socialist Council of Nagaland.
• Increased Focus on Development: Address the root causes of insurgency by promoting economic development and improving infrastructure in disturbed areas.

Patna Sahib Gurudwara

Sacred ‘Jore Sahib’, are being carried through the Guru Charan Yatra, from New Delhi to Bihar’s Patna Sahib Gurudwara.

• Revered Jore Sahib are the sandals of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru, and his wife Mata Sahib Kaur Ji. 
• Location: Patna, Bihar; one of the five Takhts (seats of Sikh authority).
• Historical Significance: The construction of the Takht was commissioned by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the 18^th century to mark the birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh.
• Architecture: Blend of Mughal and Sikh styles with golden dome and intricate artwork.

Anguiculus dicaprioi

• New snake species in the Western Himalayas named after Leonardo Di Caprio.
• Anguiculus dicaprioi is a member of the Colubridae, the largest family of snakes.
• Distribution: Found in Chamba, Kullu and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, Nainital in Uttarakhand and Chitwan National Park in Nepal.

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans)

• This year’s Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is the fourth Nobel Prize resulting from Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) research.

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans)

• C. elegans, commonly known as “the worm,” is widely used to study brain and cell functions.
• It is a small, transparent nematode that thrives in temperate soil environments. Its name is derived from a combination of Greek and Latin words, meaning “rod-like” and “elegant.”

Why is it important in research?

• Simpler anatomy: C. elegans lacks both respiratory and circulatory systems.
• Self-fertilisation: Being hermaphrodites, they are capable of producing both eggs and sperm.
• Manageability: With only 959 cells, it is an ideal model for studying fundamental biological processes.
• Transparency: The worm’s transparency allows scientists to track cell development under a microscope.
• Rapid Life Cycle: The worms grow quickly, reaching adulthood in 3-5 days after hatching from eggs.
• Genome Sequencing: It was the first animal to have a fully sequenced genome.

Four Nobel Prizes based on C. elegans

• 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Awarded for research on how healthy cells are programmed to self-destruct, a process that malfunctions in diseases like AIDS.
• 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Recognised the discovery of gene silencing, which led to the development of a new class of drugs.
• 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Honored the invention of Cellular “lanterns” using C. elegans, which allowed scientists to visualise cellular processes.
• 2024 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Gary Ruvkun and Victor Ambros for their work on microRNA regulating gene expression, aided by C. elegans.

Quantum Echoes algorithm

Google’s Willow quantum chip demonstrated the first-ever algorithm, called ‘Quantum Echoes algorithm,’ to achieve verifiable quantum advantage on hardware.

• It is an algorithm that successfully runs 13,000 times faster than one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers and is verifiable.
• Quantum verifiability means the result can be repeated to get the same answer, confirming the result.
• Technique works like a highly advanced echo, sending a quantum signals forward, perturbing one of the qubits, and then precisely reverse the signal’s evolution to listen for the "echo" that comes back.
• Potential Applications: Study of molecular structures, drug discovery etc.

Gondwanax paraisensis 

• Fossil of a reptile called Gondwanax paraisensis was discovered in southern Brazil.
• Gondwanax means “lord of Gondwana,” referring to the southern part of the supercontinent Pangaea, paraisensis honors the town of Paraiso do Sul where the fossil was found.
• Belongs to a group of extinct reptiles, silesaurids. Lived in southern Brazil during the Triassic period.
• It is small, four-legged reptile, roughly the size of a small dog.

Jumping spiders ‘Tenkana’

• A new genus of jumping spiders, Tenkana, was discovered in southern India.
• It includes two previously known species and a new species, Tenkana jayamangali are moved from Colopsus genus to newly introduced genus Tenkana.
• The name Tenkana is derived from the Kannada word for “south,” indicating the geographical distribution of these spiders in southern India and northern Sri Lanka.
• Tenkana jayamangali: Named after the Jayamangali River in Karnataka, where it was first discovered.
• Tenkana manu: Found in south India and Sri Lanka, named after Dr. Manu Thomas.
• Tenkana arkavathi: Found in Karnataka, named after Arkavathi river. 

Cloud Chamber (CC)

• India is Building a Cloud Chamber (CC) at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, as Part of Mission Mausam.
• CC is a closed cylindrical or tubular structure where water vapour, aerosols, and seed particles (for cloud formation) are injected under controlled humidity and temperature conditions.
• It is designed to study cloud droplet formation and the behaviour of ice particles and monsoon clouds.
• It will allow detailed studies of cloud physics, including cloud behaviour under both normal and extreme weather conditions. These studies will contribute to the strategic planning of weather modification, including cloud seeding.

Tapioca

A study highlights the successful use of wasps for pest control in tapioca plantations.

• A tiny parasitic wasp, Anagyrus lopezi, was used to target the cassava mealybug, an invasive pest. 

• Also called cassava, it is a tropical tuber crop mainly cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• Kerala and Tamil Nadu account for about 80% of the total acreage of the crop in India.
• Climate and Soil Requirement:
• Tropical, warm humid climate with well distributed rainfall of over 100 cm per annum.
• Well drained soil preferably red lateritic loam
• Applications: As raw material for starch extraction in yarn textile and paper industry, manufacturing sago, etc.

 Barberton Greenstone Belt

• Researchers have assessed the effects of an ancient meteorite impact in Barberton Greenstone Belt that acted as a giant fertiliser bomb for life on Earth.
• The meteorite delivered a large amount of phosphorous, a nutrient for microbes crucial for the molecules central to storing and conveying genetic information.
• It also mixed iron-rich deep waters into shallower waters, creating an environment ideal for microbes.
• It is located in the Kapvaal craton of southeastern Africa.
• It is a rugged mountain terrain of substantially untransformed Archaean rocks.
• It contains the best-preserved, oldest (the lowermost volcanic rocks are almost 3.5 billion years old), and most diverse sequence of volcanic and sedimentary rocks on Earth unaffected by subduction (and metamorphism) and erosion.
• Makhonjwa Mountains make up 40% of the Barberton belt. Komati River flows through the belt.
• BGB’s outcrops were added to UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites.

JAIMEX -25

INS Sahyadri, an indigenously built Shivalik-class Guided Missile Stealth Frigate, participated in the Sea phase of Japan-India Maritime Exercise (JAIMEX)-25.

• It is a biennial naval exercise.
• It is organised to enhance maritime cooperation between the Indian Navy and the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).
• Conducted in 2 Phases: Sea Phase and Harbour Phase

Nuclear powered ballistic Submarine (S4)

• India’s fourth nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), S4, was launched.
• S4 is bigger than INS Arihant (S2) which was developed under the Advanced Technology Vessel programme. S4* carries the advanced 3,500 km range submarine-launched ballistic missile K-4.
• First Three Submarines: INS Arihant (S2), INS Arighaat (S3), Aridhman (S4, currently undergoing sea trials and is expected to be commissioned next year).
• With successful return of INS Arihant’s first deterrence patrol India completed its nuclear triad in 2018.

Basic principles of India’s nuclear doctrine

• It is based on Credible Minimum Deterrence (CMD) and a No-First-Use (NFU) policy.
• Credible Minimum Deterrence (CMD): It emphasises maintaining a nuclear arsenal sufficient to deter adversaries but not excessively large.
• No First Use (NFU): India commits to not using nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons.

Intelsat 33e Communications Satellite

• Intelsat 33e, a Boeing-made communications satellite, disintegrated in orbit.
• It was launched in 2016 as part of the Intelsat EpicNG series, which provides advanced broadband and data services across Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism 

Iran ratifies International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism

• Adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1999 and entered in 2002.
• Purpose: Criminalizes the financing of terrorism and holds funders of terrorist acts accountable.
• India has also ratified it 

AI Playbook for Agriculture

This has been released along with two other publications under the AI for India 2030 initiative led by the Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR) India, World Economic Forum (WEF). 

• Launched under guidance of OPSA and Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), AI for India 2030 initiative aims to develop frameworks placing responsible, inclusive, and scale-driven AI at the heart of India''s digital economy.

Key Highlights of Report

• Potential AI use cases in Agriculture: 
• Intelligent Crop Planning: Uses wide range of data such as soil health, weather patterns, historical prices and food import/export trends for recommending optimal crops. 
• Smart Farming: Satellite crop monitoring, decision support systems, rapid soil health analysis, pest prediction, hyperlocal weather advice, yield prediction, automated farm machinery etc. 
• Farm-to-Fork Solutions: Ensuring quality and traceability, optimizing supply chain, fintech adoption, market linkage demand and price prediction etc.
• Framework for developing AI ecosystems in Agriculture: Report presents Inclusive Multistakeholder Pathway for the Accelerated Convergence of AI Technologies (IMPACT AI) Framework. It has three pillars: 
• It has three pillars – Enable (formulate AI strategy, enable DPI for AI, AI upskilling etc.), Create (develop innovative AI products, establish AI sandbox etc.) and Deliver (empower front line extension systems, AI marketplace, creating awareness etc.).