India notifies Pakistan of Indus Waters Treaty suspension

• India has formally notified Pakistan of its decision to suspend the Indus Waters Treaty with immediate effect, citing repeated violations of the treaty’s terms by Islamabad. In a letter sent on Thursday, Debashree Mukherjee, India’s Secretary of Water Resources, informed her Pakistani counterpart, Syed Ali Murtaza, that continued cross-border terrorism emanating from Pakistan has undermined the treaty framework.
• The letter stated, “What we have seen instead is sustained cross-border terrorism by Pakistan,” adding that such actions have created “security uncertainties” which hinder India’s ability to fully exercise its rights under the treaty.
• India’s move comes a day after a brutal terrorist attack in Jammu and Kashmir’s Pahalgam, where 26 people, including tourists, were killed. Following the attack, India announced on Wednesday that it would put the Indus Waters Treaty in abeyance, marking a significant shift in its water-sharing relations with Pakistan.
• A Signed in 1960 after nine years of negotiations and brokered by the World Bank, the Indus Waters Treaty is a landmark agreement that outlines the sharing of water from the Indus River and its tributaries—Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Jhelum, and Chenab—between the two countries. The World Bank, which played a central role in the treaty’s formulation, is also a signatory.
• India’s suspension of the treaty signals a hardening stance amid rising tensions and repeated ceasefire violations and terror incidents attributed to Pakistan-based groups. Officials in New Delhi argue that continued acts of aggression make it impossible to uphold the spirit of cooperation envisaged under the treaty.
• This is the first time India has officially suspended the treaty since its inception, and the move could have far-reaching implications for the already strained bilateral relationship. It also raises questions about future cooperation on transboundary water management in South Asia.
• The government has reiterated that the decision is rooted in national security concerns and the consistent failure of Pakistan to uphold its commitments under the treaty.

What is the Indus Water Treaty?

• India and Pakistan share the waters of six rivers — Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Indus, Chenab and Jhelum. 
• The basin is mainly shared by India and Pakistan with a small share for China and Afghanistan. The Indus Waters Treaty was signed in 1960 after nine years of negotiations between India and Pakistan with the help of the World Bank, which is also a signatory. 
• Under the Treaty, the water from the three eastern rivers — Ravi, Sutlej and Beas — averaging around 33 million acre feet (MAF) were allocated to India for exclusive use.
• The water from western rivers — Indus, Jhelum and Chenab — averaging to around 135 MAF were allocated to Pakistan except for specified domestic, non-consumptive and agricultural use permitted to India as provided in the Treaty.
• The Treaty also sets forth distinct procedures to handle issues which may arise: “questions” are handled by the Commission, “differences” are to be resolved by a Neutral Expert, and “disputes” are to be referred to a seven-member arbitral tribunal called the “Court of Arbitration.” 
• As a signatory to the Treaty, the World Bank’s role is limited and procedural.
• The Treaty sets out a mechanism for cooperation and information exchange between the two countries regarding their use of the rivers, known as the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC), which has a commissioner from each country.
• The two commissioners are required to meet at least once every year, alternately in India and Pakistan.

Can India walk out of the pact unilaterally?

• The Indus Waters Treaty does not allow either country to unilaterally withdraw from the agreement.
• According to Article XII of the treaty, it states that the provisions of the treaty, or any modifications made under paragraph (3), remain in force until terminated by a mutually ratified treaty between both governments.
• If India wishes to terminate the treaty, it must adhere to the guidelines of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

Dispute over two hydroelectric power plants

• The disagreement between India and Pakistan concerns the design features of the Kishanganga (330 MW) and Ratle (850 MW) hydroelectric power plants.
• The two countries disagree over whether the technical design features of these two hydroelectric plants contravene the Treaty. 
• The plants are located in India on tributaries of the Jhelum and the Chenab Rivers. The Treaty designates these two rivers, as well as the Indus, as the “Western Rivers” to which Pakistan has unrestricted use with some exceptions. Under the Treaty, India is permitted to construct hydroelectric power facilities on these rivers.
• In 2015, Pakistan requested the appointment of a Neutral Expert to examine its technical objections to India’s Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects.
• In 2016, Pakistan unilaterally retracted this request and proposed that a Court of Arbitration adjudicate on its objections.
• Under the pact, any difference needs to be resolved under a three-stage approach. 
•  In November 2016, India had pointed out the legal untenability of the World Bank launching two simultaneous processes for appointment of a neutral expert — requested by India, and establishment of a Court of Arbitration — requested by Pakistan on Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects.
•  In March 2022, the World Bank announced starting the two concurrent processes and subsequently, appointed a neutral expert and a chair of the Court of Arbitration.
•  When the two concurrent processes resumed in March last year, India only cooperated with the Neutral Expert and has been skipping the process being followed by the Court of Arbitration.
• In July 2023, Court of Arbitration ruled that it has the competence to consider matters concerning the Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects.
• While India refused to take part in the Court of Arbitration, it submitted a Memorial to the Neutral Expert in August 2023

BRICS Agriculture Ministers launches the “BRICS Land Restoration Partnership” to address land degradation, desertification and soil fertility loss.

• AT the 15th meeting of BRICS Agriculture Ministers, India reaffirmed its commitment to inclusive, equitable, and sustainable agriculture. During the meeting, Union Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan highlighted that the world’s 510 million smallholder farmers are the backbone of the global food system and are also the most vulnerable in the face of climate change, price volatility, and resource scarcity.
•  Chouhan stated that we cannot leave smallholders to fight these challenges alone; they need our policy support. He presented cluster-based farming, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), cooperative models, and natural farming as effective approaches for the collective empowerment of small farmers and improving their market access.
• The meeting underlined the need to make agricultural trade fair, control global price volatility, and ensure remunerative prices for small farmers. He reiterated the importance of public food stockholding systems, minimum support prices (MSP), and value chains that connect smallholders directly to consumers.
• Shri Chouhan cited India’s food storage and distribution capacity during the COVID-19 crisis as a case in point, through which free rations were distributed to over 800 million people.
• During the meeting, Chouhan called for deeper collaboration to combat climate change by sharing its key programs – National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), Waste to Wealth, Circular Economy, bio-fertilizers, and traditional farming practices.
• In this context, the BRICS Agriculture Ministers launched the “BRICS Land Restoration Partnership” to address land degradation, desertification, and soil fertility loss.
• He supported this initiative, highlighting that it would benefit small farmers, tribal communities, and local cultivators through the convergence of traditional knowledge and scientific innovation.
• In the Joint Declaration, BRICS nations collectively reiterated their resolve to make the global agri-food system fair, inclusive, innovative, and sustainable.
•  The declaration emphasized commitments to food security, climate adaptation, empowerment of women and youth, sustainable fisheries and livestock development, soil and land restoration, digital agriculture certification, and promotion of financial and trade mechanisms for the agricultural economies of the Global South.
•  The formal announcement of the BRICS Land Restoration Partnership further reinforced the group’s collective commitment to halting land degradation and desertification.

Key points of the declaration:

• It proposes the establishment of a structured financing mechanism, potentially involving international organisations, to support projects focused on soil conservation and the restoration of degraded areas such as mangroves, riverbanks, floodplains, and wetlands. 
• Priority actions include correcting soil acidity, controlling salinisation, and investing in research, infrastructure, and technical assistance for agricultural workers and rural landowners. 
• To support the adoption of these practices, the document highlights the launch of the BRICS Partnership for Land Restoration, in alignment with the framework of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
• The BRICS Partnership for Land Restoration will serve as a catalyst for transformative action in soil conservation and land restoration, ensuring long term socio-economic and environmental benefits, strengthening food and energy security, and promoting sustainable rural development. 
• Among the strategic items included in the joint declaration is the promotion of partnerships among Global South countries aimed at producing machinery and equipment tailored to family farming. 
• Family farming has the potential to combine agroecology, sustainable natural source management, and the conservation of biodiversity by traditional populations
• The document addressed the promotion of women’s participation in the agricultural sector, noting that women in rural areas are more vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutrition than men. Empowering women and reducing gender disparities in agriculture and food systems are essential for eradicating hunger, malnutrition, and poverty, as well as achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5, which aims to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030.
• The declaration also focuses on facilitating international agricultural trade, intending to reduce unnecessary barriers, promote transparency, and enable the exchange of agricultural and livestock products among member countries. It also proposes the adoption of digital certification to reduce bureaucracy, mitigate the risk of fraud, prevent falsification, and improve traceability.
• Another commitment is the potential establishment of a mechanism to facilitate financing for food imports within BRICS, as a means of providing emergency financial relief to low and middle-income countries affected by rising costs of food and other essential inputs, such as fertilizers and energy.

The BRICS nations

 The BRICS nations or Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa form the key pillars of south-south cooperation and are the representative voice of emerging markets and developing countries in the global forums such as the G20.

• The grouping has become a 11-nation body now with Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Indonesia joining it as new members.
• The acronym BRIC was first used in 2001 by Goldman Sachs in their Global Economics Paper, ‘The World Needs Better Economic BRICs’ on the basis of econometric analyses projecting that the four economies would individually and collectively occupy far greater economic space and would be amongst the world’s largest economies in the next 50 years or so.
• The leaders of BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) countries met for the first time in St. Petersburg, Russia, on the margins of the G8 Outreach Summit in July 2006. Shortly afterwards, in September 2006, the group was formalised as BRIC during the First BRIC Foreign Ministers’ Meeting, which met on the sidelines of the General Debate of the UN Assembly in New York City.
• After a series of high level meetings, the first BRIC summit was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia on June 16, 2009.
• It was agreed to expand BRIC into BRICS with the inclusion of South Africa at the BRIC Foreign Ministers meeting in New York in September 2010. Accordingly, South Africa attended the third BRICS Summit in Sanya on April 14, 2011. 
• In 2014, the BRICS nations established the New Development Bank (NDB). It has an initial authorised capital of $100 billion and initial subscribed capital of $50 billion of which $10 billion is paid-in capital.

Expansion of BRICS

• BRICS leaders have left the door open to future enlargement as dozens more countries voiced interest in joining a grouping.
• Around 40 countries had shown interest in joining BRICS out of which 23 formally applied for the membership.
• In August 2023, the top BRICS leaders at the grouping’s summit in Johannesburg approved a proposal to admit six countries, including Argentina, into the bloc with effect from January 1, 2024. However, Argentina’s President Javier Milei announced withdrawing his country from becoming a member of the BRICS.
• The decision to expand the bloc is seen as an effort to reshape global governance while putting the voices of the Global South as a key priority area to advance the overall development agenda.
•  Brazil assumed the presidency of BRICS on January 1, 2025.

Africa CDC and WHO update strategy to curb mpox

• Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) have updated their joint Continental Response Plan for the mpox emergency as the disease continues to affect new areas. 
• The revised strategy focuses on controlling outbreaks, while expanding vaccination coverage and transitioning toward a longer-term, sustainable response. 
• The WHO has declared mpox outbreak as a ‘public health emergency of international concern’ (PHEIC).

 What is mpox?

•  Mpox (monkeypox) is an infectious disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV). 
• Mpox virus belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus in the family Poxviridae. The Orthopoxvirus genus also includes variola virus (which causes smallpox), vaccinia virus (used in the smallpox vaccine), and cowpox virus.
• Mpox has symptoms similar, but less severe, to smallpox. While smallpox was eradicated in 1980, mpox continues to occur in countries of central and west Africa.
• Mpox is zoonosis: a disease that is transmitted from animals to humans.
• Mpox was formerly called monkeypox. Following a series of consultations with global experts, WHO began using “mpox” as a synonym for monkeypox. 
• Monkeypox was first discovered in 1958 when outbreaks of a pox-like disease occurred in monkeys kept for research, hence the name ‘monkeypox’.
• The first human case was recorded in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then known as Zaire), and since then the infection has been reported in a number of central and western African countries. Most cases are reported from Congo and Nigeria. 
• In 2003, monkeypox was recorded in the United States when an outbreak occurred following importation of rodents from Africa. Cases were reported in both humans and pet prairie dogs. All the human infections followed contact with an infected pet and all patients recovered. 
• Mpox is endemic in densely forested regions of West, Central and East Africa, particularly in the northern and central regions of Congo. 
• Mpox outbreaks are caused by different viruses called clades. Clade 1 has been circulating in Congo for years, while clade 2 was responsible for the global outbreak which began in 2022.
• In late 2023, yet another viral strain, clade 1b, began spreading. 
• This prompted the Africa CDC to declare a Public Health Emergency of Continental Security and the WHO Director-General to declare a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in August 2024. 
•  By August 2024, the virus had begun spreading from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to four neighbouring countries. 
• Later, 28 countries around the world have reported cases of mpox due to clade 1b. 
• Since the declaration of the emergency, both regional and global support has increased, particularly for the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the epicentre of the outbreak. 
•  Vaccination efforts are underway, with more than 650,000 doses administered in six countries, 90 per cent of which have been administered in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Overall, over a million doses have been delivered to 10 countries, with efforts ongoing to secure additional vaccine supplies. 

Major challenges 

• Ongoing conflict and insecurity in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where the incidence of mpox remains high, as well as humanitarian aid cuts, continue to limit the public health response and restrict access to essential services. Across countries and partners, over $220 million is needed to fill funding gaps for the mpox response. 

Updated Continental Response Plan

• The updated Continental Response Plan calls for intensified efforts to bring outbreaks under control, while also taking concrete actions to integrate mpox into routine health services.  
• Along with the Continental Response Plan for Africa, WHO has updated the global strategic plan to curb human-to-human transmission of mpox. 
• In the first two months of 2025, as many as 60 countries reported mpox, with the majority of cases and deaths reported from the African continent. The joint Continental Response Plan is aligned with the global strategy. 
• Africa CDC and WHO continue to work closely with national governments, local communities, and partners to curb transmission, control the outbreak, and build longer-term resilience within public health systems

SeaCURE Kicks Off Pilot Ocean CDR Operations In The UK

·         SeaCURE, an ocean-based carbon dioxide removal (CDR) project, has officially launched pilot operations in Weymouth, United Kingdom. 

·         The pilot facility is projected to have an annual capture capacity of 100 tonnes of atmospheric CO2, and will serve as a testing and refinement ground to verify the decarbonization impact of this novel CDR approach, gathering knowledge towards future operations scaling.

·         Powered by nearly $4 million (£3m) in governmental funding, the SeaCURE initiative is a collaboration between leading academic experts coming from backgrounds in ocean carbon, marine law, green infrastructure, climate monitoring and modeling, and life cycle analysis. 

·         This scientific body is further supported by engineering and tech SME partners, who provided expertise on the plant design and construction, aligned with water processing and carbon removal needs.

·         The innovative technology deployed at the SeaCURE pilot facility pulls ocean water to an onshore processing point, where its acidity is raised, causing the naturally accumulated CO2 to be released in gas form. 

·         Once released, the CO2 is then sucked away and treated with charred coconut husks to increase its concentration, creating a carbon dioxide stream that is ready to be safely stored.

·         The resulting low-carbon seawater is treated with alkali to bring its acidity back to normal levels before being released back into the ocean, where it will continue to absorb atmospheric CO2 through naturally occurring processes. 

·         While consuming high amounts of energy to function, this technology still offers a promising pathway for scrubbing excessive CO2 from the air, as it might allow for more substantial decarbonization when compared with direct air capture solutions, due to the higher amount of concentrated carbon dioxide in the seawater than in the air. 

·         When applying for governmental funding, the SeaCURE team stated that in the long run, once scaled to large levels, this solution could remove 14 billion tonnes of CO2 per year, a scenario that would require only 1% of the world’s ocean to be processed with this CDR technology. 

·         This vision would also require the use of renewable energy to power the solution, which could be accomplished through the use of a floating solar panel installation.

What is the SeaCURE project about?

·         The SeaCURE project, implemented by the University of Exeter in partnership with Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Brunel University London, and the company Eliquo Hydrok, has received £3 million in funding from the UK Department for Energy Security and Net Zero. The aim is to test whether removing CO₂ from seawater could become a scalable and efficient method of emission reduction.

·         Oceans absorb around 25% of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions and play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. The concentration of dissolved carbon in seawater is about 100–150 times higher than the concentration of CO2 in the air, which makes carbon capture from seawater, as in the SeaCURE project, more effective in terms of the volume of medium processed compared to direct air capture.

How does the system capture CO₂ from seawater?

·         The process begins with seawater being drawn in through a pipe beneath the beach. The water is then acidified, converting dissolved carbon into gaseous CO₂. In a special tank called a stripper, the CO₂ is released, extracted, and concentrated using carbonized coconut shells.

·         After extraction, an alkaline solution is added to neutralize the acid. The treated water, now with a reduced CO₂ content, is returned to the sea, where it immediately begins to absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The water remains chemically neutral and environmentally safe – its pH complies with UK drinking water standards.

What sets SeaCURE apart from other carbon capture technologies?

·         The SeaCURE system differs from traditional carbon capture methods like Direct Air Capture (DAC), which focus on extracting CO₂ directly from the atmosphere. Instead, SeaCURE utilizes seawater – a medium with a significantly higher carbon content, allowing for greater efficiency with lower energy consumption.

Key distinguishing features:

·         – Higher efficiency – capturing CO₂ from 1 m³ of seawater is equivalent to extracting it from 150 m³ of air
– No land use competition – the system can be installed offshore, avoiding conflicts with agricultural or residential land
– Powered by renewables – the project aims to use renewable energy sources like solar panels, increasing its climate neutrality
– Practical implementation – the pilot system in Weymouth processes up to 3,000 liters of water per minute, which means it can remove up to 100 tons of CO₂ per year

·         As Dr. Paul Halloran, the SeaCURE project lead, emphasizes, the technology has the potential to operate autonomously on offshore platforms, without occupying valuable land resources. This makes it particularly promising in the context of global emission reduction strategies.

Environmental impact on marine ecosystems

·         One of the key aspects of the project is analyzing the potential impact of low-CO₂ seawater on marine ecosystems. Guy Hooper, a PhD student at the University of Exeter, is conducting laboratory studies to assess the effect of this water on marine organisms such as phytoplankton and mussels, which use carbon for photosynthesis or shell formation. Preliminary results suggest that large amounts of low-CO₂ water could have some environmental impact, but these effects can likely be mitigated, for example, through pre-dilution of the water.

·         At the current project scale, the amount of discharged water is minimal and does not affect the local ecosystem. All water parameters comply with the standards of the UK Environment Agency (EA).

Importance in the fight against global warming

·         Experts, including Dr. Oliver Geden of the IPCC, stress that carbon capture will be essential to achieving net-zero emission targets. However, SeaCURE does not replace reduction measures – it complements them, especially in the context of historical and hard-to-abate emissions.

·         UK Energy Minister Kerry McCarthy highlights that innovative projects like SeaCURE are crucial for the development of green technologies, supporting jobs and stimulating economic growth. The project is one of 15 pilot programs supported by the UK government as part of its greenhouse gas capture and storage strategy.

Challenges and potential

·         SeaCURE technology requires substantial energy input, making renewable energy supply essential. Further analysis will also be necessary to understand the effects on marine environments at larger deployment scales. Nevertheless, the potential is immense – estimates suggest that processing just 1% of the ocean’s surface could remove up to 14 billion tons of CO₂ annually. It’s an ambitious vision, but with adequate support and research, it could become a reality.

Microplastics in Arctic waters threaten spotted seals and humans

·         Microplastic pollution is already reaching the farthest corners of the globe – including the remote Arctic.

·          A recent study conducted on spotted seals(Phoca largha) reveals that even wild marine mammals from Pacific Arctic regions have been regularly ingesting plastic particles for more than a decade. The effects of this phenomenon may affect not only the animals themselves, but also the indigenous communities for which the seals are a food source.

Microplastics in the Arctic food chain

·         Microplastics – plastic particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter – are one of the most common and disturbing contaminants of the Anthropocene era, also present in remote Arctic waters. Recent studies confirm its presence in the bodies of wild marine mammals such as spotted seals(Phoca largha), which inhabit the Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort Seas.

·         These seals play a key role in Arctic ecosystems as an indicator species – their health, diet and pollution accumulation levels make it possible to assess the overall health of the marine environment, including the extent of its contamination, changes in the structure of trophic networks and the effects of climate warming.

·         These animals are also of great cultural and nutritional importance to Alaska’s indigenous communities, who have been harvesting them through traditional hunting for generations.

·         The study by a team from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game included analysis of 34 stomachs of spotted seals harvested through traditional hunting in Gambell (Bering Sea) and Shishmaref (Chukchi Sea).

·         The samples came from two years – 2012 and 2020 – and were collected in autumn, which means that even the juveniles had time to switch to a diet based mainly on fish. In 97 percent of the cases, microplastics were detected in the stomachs.

How was the presence of microplastic tested?

·         Samples of spotted seal stomachs, obtained from traditional subsistence hunts conducted by indigenous communities, were used for analysis. In the laboratory, the contents of the stomachs were thawed (after storage at -20 °C) and accurately weighed.

·         It was then sifted through 1 mm and 0.125 mm mesh sieves to separate larger food debris from finer particles, including potential microplastics.

·          The contents were subjected to enzymatic digestion, which breaks down organic components, leaving intact plastics and hard prey fragments such as fish otoliths and crustacean shells. Finally, the samples were vacuum-passed through filters with a pore diameter of 0.7 µm.

·         The filters were analyzed in detail under a stereomicroscope, identifying plastic particles based on their shape (e.g., fibers, fragments), color and size. All identified microplastics were measured, photographed and cataloged.

·         At the same time, the age of the seals (based on analysis of their teeth), their sex, the place and year of obtaining the sample, and the composition of their diet based on the preserved food remains were determined.

·          It should be noted that only the contents of the stomachs were analyzed – the study’s authors suggest that the next step should be to see whether microplastics can penetrate body tissues (e.g., liver, kidney or adipose tissue), which would allow a better assessment of the potential health effects, both for the animals and for humans consuming their meat.

Spotted seals’ diet affects pollution levels

·         Of the 34 stomachs examined, a total of 211 plastic particles were detected in 33, of which 190 were classified as microplastics (<5 mm) and 21 as macroplastics (≥5 mm). The identified microplastics were mostly thin fibers – only one particle was in the form of a fragment. This may suggest that their source is textiles or fishing nets.

·         The number of particles in the stomachs ranged from 0 to 23, with a median of 4, and the concentration ranged from 0 to 60 particles per gram of wet weight (median: 0.059). There were no significant differences between juveniles and adults, or between locations and years of harvest.

·         Clear differences, however, were revealed according to the type of food. Seals that fed on both pelagic and benthic organisms had significantly more microplastic in their bodies than those that consumed only pelagic prey. Higher concentrations were also observed in individuals that hunted species from higher trophic levels.

Steady presence of microplastics in Arctic waters

·         The lack of differences between age, location and time of capture indicates that spotted seals have been exposed to constant and widespread microplastic exposure since at least 2012.

·         The highest concentrations were recorded in individuals feeding near the bottom – this is where microplastic accumulates in the sediment.

·         Although the hydrological conditions of the Bering Sea and the Chukchi Sea differ in terms of currents and sediments, the study found no differences in pollution levels between the two bodies of water. This may indicate the widespread presence of microplastics in the Arctic marine environment.

Threats to seal and human health

·         Microplastics not only mechanically irritate the digestive system, but can also carry toxic substances, heavy metals and endocrinally active compounds. Potential effects on seals include metabolic disorders, reproductive problems and weakened immunity. The implications for Alaska Native communities, which have obtained seals as a food source for generations, are also significant. Contamination of the organisms of these animals could also pose a risk to human health

Journey to the Galapagos, a land of unique animals and plants

·          Galapagos is like a trip to paradise. Animals living in the wild, nature in its pristine form, a stunning landscape – there’s a reason why the archipelago is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The place is magical, but human activity is destroying the natural ecosystem day after day. So a discussion has been undertaken on how to save the Galapagos from anthropogenic influences.

Why is the Galapagos archipelago so remarkable?

·         The Galapagos Archipelago is a group of 13 large islands, six smaller islands and more than 100 islets and rocks located in the Pacific Ocean, in the equatorial zone. Also known as the Turtle Islands, it provides a unique habitat for many endemic plant and animal species. The archipelago belongs to Ecuador, and its total area is approx. 60,000 km². Although typical hotel tourism has not developed there, human activity has still significantly deteriorated the ecosystem.

Galapagos biodiversity – home to rare animal and plant species

·         The biggest distinguishing feature of the Galapagos is its fauna and flora. The islands are home to numerous endemics, or unique species that exist only in a particular place.

·         The archipelago has one of the highest levels of endemism in the world! About 80 percent of land birds, 97 percent of land reptiles and mammals and 30 percent of plants are found nowhere else. As much as 20 percent of sea creatures are found only in the Galapagos. The best-known species are the giant Galapagos tortoise, the marine iguana, the flightless cormorant and the Galapagos penguin.

Flora of the Galapagos

·         The islands are located in the dry Pacific belt, so only the highlands receive enough rainfall for lush tropical plants to thrive. The rest of the Galapagos is desert in nature. The islands have distinguished more than 600 native plant species and about 825 introduced species (most of which were initiated by humans

Galapagos Fauna

·         The main representative of the Galapagos fauna is the giant tortoise, which is currently found in only two places on the planet. In addition, the Galapagos is home to 7 different species of lava lizards, which can change color and throw back their tails when threatened. Land and marine iguanas found on the islands, as well as the only penguins in the Northern Hemisphere, are also a remarkable attraction. The Galapagos is also home to nearly 30 species of birds.

Threats to the ecosystem

·         The Galapagos ecosystem is influenced by the unique location of the archipelago. Here, four ocean currents meet, which, combined with the isolation of the islands, promotes the formation of diverse ecosystems and ideal living conditions for many animal and plant species. However, many of these creatures are unable to migrate, so changing climatic conditions are becoming a real threat to their survival.

·         Extreme weather events (e.g., El Niño involving the persistence of above-average high temperatures at the water’s surface) and climate change are having a significant impact on the biodiversity of the Galapagos.

·         On the one hand, they pose a threat to marine species, but on the other hand, they have a positive impact on terrestrial species, as they increase rainfall and ensure the availability of food.

Galapagos and human presence

·         Human activity has had a major impact on the natural ecosystem of the Galapagos. Even single visits by pirates, sailors or whalers have left a significant mark on the islands. Visitors often took turtles with them, and pests that disrupted biodiversity were brought ashore from the decks.

·          The attractiveness of the place meant that it began to attract tourists, but not only. In 1950, the Galapagos had a population of 1,346, and by 2020 the number exceeded 27,000!

·         There is increasing talk of the need to develop rules for the equivalent functioning of the various groups living in the archipelago. A sustainable society is supposed to be a guarantee of improving the standard of living of the inhabitants, and at the same time it is supposed to ensure the protection of nature

Inland waters increasingly low in oxygen

·         Inland waters – lakes, rivers and artificial reservoirs – are a vital component of the global biogeochemical system, playing a key role in regulating element cycles, greenhouse gas dynamics and the functioning of terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

·         However, recent studies show that their functioning is undergoing profound changes. Over the past century, the oxygen cycle in inland waters has been severely disrupted, and the consequences of this process may extend far beyond the aquatic environments themselves.

World model shows how rivers and lakes breathe

·         A team of scientists from Utrecht University, led by Junjie Wang and Jack Middelburg, has developed the first-ever global model describing the oxygen cycle in inland waters. The IMAGE-DGNM model covered the years 1900-2010 and allowed for a precise estimation of how the production, consumption and exchange of oxygen with the atmosphere changed under the influence of climatic factors, human activities and biogeochemical processes.

·         The results of the analysis are alarming. In a century, the production of oxygen in waters has increased from 0.16 to 0.94 billion tons per year, while its consumption has increased from 0.44 to 1.47 billion tons per year.

·         This means that while inland waters are producing more and more oxygen, they are also consuming more of it, and are therefore unable to meet their own demand. As a result, the net balance of production and consumption is becoming increasingly negative. The deficit has increased from -0.3 to -0.5 billion tons of oxygen per year.

Where does the oxygen in the water come from?

·         Oxygen in inland waters is produced mainly by photosynthesis, carried out by algae and higher plants. At the beginning of the 20th century, production near the bottom (so-called benthic) was dominant, but over time photosynthesis in the depths of the water (pelagic) began to play an increasingly important role. The breakthrough came in the 1970s, when much larger amounts of nutrients began to enter the waters, mainly as a result of agricultural and municipal activities.

·         The geography of oxygen production has also changed over time. In 1900, the most active water systems in this regard were those in the tropics, including the Amazon, Congo and Orinoco river basins. By 2010, the center of activity had shifted to more urbanized areas: the southeastern United States, Western Europe and Southeast Asia.

·         At the same time, the role of water bodies increased. Their share of global oxygen production increased from 53 to as much as 85 percent, a result of the massive construction of dams that turned natural rivers into reservoirs with long retention times.

Oxygen is depleting faster than it is arriving

·         Oxygen demand in inland waters is increasing due to the intensification of many biological and chemical processes. Oxygen is consumed during, among other things, respiration of aquatic organisms, mineralization of organic matter and chemical processes such as nitrification.

·         Although algae and plants produce oxygen through photosynthesis, they also consume it themselves, especially at night, when respiration processes take precedence over photosynthesis.

·         Also problematic are the increasing amounts of organic matter coming in from the land and generated locally and decomposed by microorganisms, generating a high demand for oxygen.

·         Particularly intensive consumption occurs in bottom sediments, which, as the model results show, absorb more oxygen than can be replenished by photosynthetic production or exchange with the atmosphere.

·         As a result, the demand for oxygen in inland waters continually exceeds its local production, leading to a permanent deficit. To maintain the biogeochemical balance, ecosystems take oxygen from the atmosphere. According to the analysis, in 1900 atmospheric oxygen uptake was 0.66 billion tons per year, and in 2010 it was already 0.95 billion tons.

·         Although the surface area of inland waters is only 0.2 percent of that of the oceans, they absorb almost half the amount of oxygen that the Allocean gives off to the atmosphere.

·         Most of the gas exchange occurs in rivers and streams, but the most intensive processes of oxygen production and consumption occur in water bodies. Inland waters, despite their important role, are still not included in global climate models and IPCC reports, which is a major gap in estimates of the global oxygen cycle.

Why are inland waters losing oxygen faster and faster?

·         The model identifies three main causes:

·         Excess nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) from fertilizers and wastewater;

·         Hydrological transformations – dams and reservoirs that extend water retention times;

·         Global warming, which reduces the solubility of oxygen and accelerates the decomposition of matter.

·         Significantly, rising temperatures alone are responsible for only 10-20 percent of changes in the oxygen cycle. This means that it is not the climate, but primarily direct human activity (fertilization, wastewater, river regulation) that is responsible for the current state.

·         Simulations have shown that without the historical increase in nutrient input, oxygen production in inland waters would be lower by as much as 56 percent, and oxygen consumption by 67 percent. This means that eutrophication actually drives the intensification of oxygen-forming processes, but increases the demand for this gas even more strongly. As a result, the balance remains negative – and it is the excess of nutrients, combined with hydrological transformations (which account for more than 80 percent of the increase in oxygen production), that leads to profound and adverse changes in the functioning of aquatic ecosystems.

Impacts on climate and ecosystems

·         Disruption of the oxygen cycle in inland waters has serious consequences not only for aquatic organisms. Oxygen affects the cycling of many other elements, such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. Oxygen deficiency can lead to:

·         more frequent and more intense algal blooms, whose decomposition after death exacerbates hypoxia;

·         hypoxia (known as suffocation) and massive fish die-offs;

·         The deterioration of drinking water quality;

·         biodiversity loss;

·         Increased greenhouse gas emissions.

·         All of this could have implications for climate, public health and food security. The study’s authors emphasize that unless action is taken to reduce nutrient inputs and greenhouse gas emissions, inland waters will become even larger sinks of atmospheric oxygen, with further consequences for the entire Earth

Soil degradation could force migration of hundreds of millions of people

·         A Progressive soil degradation threatens to reduce agricultural productivity and dramatically increase the scale of forced migration, according to a recent report by the NGO Save Soil. Its authors argue that investment in improving soil health should be a socioeconomic priority.

A twofold increase in forced migration by the end of the 21st century.

·         Soil degradation, climate change and food insecurity are a trio of closely related problems that threaten global stability.

·          This thesis has become the thrust of a report prepared by Save Soil based on analyses by leading international organizations, including the World Bank, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The study’s conclusions indicate that the number of people forced to resettle could double by the end of this century.

·         Climate migration is a problem that is clearly gaining in intensity and, contrary to appearances, is not exclusively associated with disasters such as hurricanes and floods. Forced displacement is also a consequence of slow processes that are changing living conditions in the region – these include rising sea levels and prolonged droughts.

·         And while climate change is a key factor in environmental migration, land degradation acts as a multiplier, reducing the resilience of societies to droughts and floods.

Regions particularly at risk of migration

·         Save Soil cites the Groundswell report, prepared by World Bank experts, which estimates that climate change will force 216 million people to migrate internally by 2050.

·         The problem will be particularly acute in six regions: Sub-Saharan and North Africa, East Asia, South and Central Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe. In sub-Saharan Africa, up to 86 million people may be forced to relocate.

·         Climate migration within national borders will, over time, deplete resources in some regions and drive citizens to seek better living conditions in other countries. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), more than 1 billion citizens living in coastal areas will be affected by climate risks by 2050, prompting hundreds of millions to migrate.

·         As an additional threat, analysts consider the policies of Donald Trump, whose import tariffs could increase economic pressure in many regions of the world.

Desertification in the world

·         Soil degradation is closely linked to the desertification process, which, according to the UNCCD, could affect up to 5 billion people by the end of this century. Caused by climate change, the long-term scarcity of soil moisture is leading to a significant reduction in agricultural productivity and forcing entire populations to migrate to more fertile areas.

·         The UNCCD estimates that areas equivalent to half of Australia’s territory have already permanently changed from wet to dry, and the lack of rainfall has become a serious problem for populations living off crops, livestock and forestry.

·         Particularly worrisome are forecasts for Europe, where as much as 15 percent of the territory is expected to shift to a class with a higher dryness index by 2100 if high levels of greenhouse gas emissions continue.

·         The threat of desertification also affects much of the United States, Central America, the Amazon, Chile, the Mediterranean basin, the Atlantic coast of sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Africa, South Asia and the southern part of Australia.

·          Unfortunately, nowhere in the world is the transformation of dry areas into wetlands forecast, so the global trend is decidedly pessimistic.

India’s Underground Coal Mining Gets a Major Boost with New Incentives by Ministry of Coal

·         In a decisive step towards revitalizing India''s coal sector, the Ministry of Coal has introduced a series of transformative policy measures aimed at promoting underground coal mining. These bold reforms address the traditional challenges of high capital investment and longer gestation periods, reaffirming the Government’s resolve to modernize the coal ecosystem while aligning with the broader vision of sustainable development.

·         To accelerate the growth/ Operationalization of underground coal mining, the Ministry of Coal has introduced a robust package of incentives:

·         Reduction in Floor Revenue Share: The floor percentage of revenue share for underground coal mines has been reduced from 4% to 2%. This targeted reduction offers substantial fiscal relief and enhances the financial viability of underground projects.

·          Waiver of Upfront Payment: The mandatory upfront payment requirement for underground mining ventures has been completely waived off. This measure removes a significant financial barrier, encouraging broader participation from the private sector and facilitating faster project implementation.

·         These incentives are further complemented by an existing 50% rebate on performance security for underground coal blocks, collectively lowering the entry threshold and facilitating smoother project implementation.

·         The Ministry’s reform-oriented approach underscores its commitment to fostering a future-ready, investment-friendly, and innovation-driven coal sector. By incentivizing underground mining, the Government is not only catalyzing economic growth but also driving the industry toward greater efficiency, safety, and employment generation.

·         Underground coal mining is inherently more environment-friendly, as it causes significantly less surface disruption compared to opencast operations. These policy measures are expected to encourage the adoption of advanced technologies—such as continuous miners, longwall systems, remote sensing tools, and AI-based safety mechanisms—which will boost productivity while ensuring ecological balance.

·         These forward-leaning reforms mark a strategic shift toward cleaner and more sustainable coal extraction practices. They are poised to unlock the vast untapped potential of underground mining in India, fostering innovation, reducing carbon emissions, and contributing meaningfully to the nation’s energy security and Atmanirbhar Bharat objectives.

·         With this visionary roadmap, the Ministry of Coal is not only reshaping the future of coal mining but also reaffirming its role as a catalyst in India’s journey toward self-reliant and environmentally responsible industrial growth

A new method to reliably estimate Helium abundance in the Sun

·         A new study has accurately estimated the abundance of Helium in our Sun for the first time. This could be a major step in assessing the opacity of the Sun’s photosphere.

·         Astronomers have traditionally assumed the abundance of Helium in the photosphere of Sun-like stars to be one tenth of that of Hydrogen by extrapolating from hotter stars, or from the outer atmosphere of the Sun (solar corona, solar wind), or from seismology studies of the interior of the Sun. None of these methods are based on direct observations of the photosphere due to the absence of Helium spectral lines.

·         An accurate and reliable measurement of the abundance of the element Helium in the photosphere of our Sun remains a challenge for astronomers to this day. The abundance of various elements in our Sun, or in any other star, is estimated from their absorption spectral lines.

·         Since Helium does not produce any observable spectral lines from the visible surface, or the photosphere, of the Sun, its abundance has usually been estimated through indirect means.

·         Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), an autonomous institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DST), has used Magnesium and Carbon features in the observed high-resolution spectrum of the Sun to accurately calculate the abundance of Helium in our Sun, in a recent study.

·         This study published ,has been carried out by Satyajeet Moharana, B.P. Hema, and Gajendra Pandey, all from the Indian Institute of Astrophysics.

·         “Using a novel and consistent technique, whereby the spectral lines of neutral Magnesium and Carbon atoms in conjunction with the lines from the Hydrogenated molecules of these two elements are carefully modelled, we are able to constrain the relative abundance of Helium in the Sun’s photosphere now”, said Satyajeet Moharana, the first author of the published study and currently a PhD scholar at KASI, South Korea.

·         “We analysed the lines of neutral Magnesium and the subordinate lines of MgH molecule, and the neutral Carbon and the subordinate lines of CH and C2 molecules, from the photospheric spectrum of the Sun”, said B.P. Hema. This was done by a careful calculation of the various parameters involved in the formation of the spectral lines. They then subjected the data to Equivalent Width analyses and spectrum syntheses.

·         “The abundance of Magnesium derived from its neutral atomic line must necessarily agree with the abundance derived from its hydrogenated molecular line”, she explained. Similarly, the abundance of Carbon derived from its neutral atomic line must agree with that derived from its molecular lines. The estimate of the abundance of these two elements from each of their lines depends, in turn, on the abundance of Hydrogen.

·          Since Helium is the second most abundant element in the Sun after Hydrogen, the abundance of Helium is linked to the abundance of Hydrogen. This is the basic principle of this method.

·         “For example,”, explains Moharana, “if Helium was assumed to be slightly more abundant, this would proportionately decrease the abundance of Hydrogen, which will decrease the opacity of the Sun’s photosphere and decrease the availability of Hydrogen to form molecules with Magnesium and Carbon”.

·          For a metal hydride (e.g. MgH or CH) line, a combined effect of the reduced continuum absorption and the line’s reduced absorption strength demands an increased metal abundance to fit the same observed line strength.

·         “In our analysis, we calculated the expected abundance of Mg and C for various values of the relative abundance of Helium to Hydrogen, from the atomic and molecular lines”, said Gajendra Pandey. For the Mg and C abundances to match their respective atomic and molecular features, the Helium to Hydrogen ratio that we infer are consistent with a value of 0.1.  

·         “Our derived He/H ratios are in fair agreement with the results obtained through various helioseismological studies, signifying the reliability and accuracy of our novel technique in determining the solar helium-to-hydrogen ratio. This study also confirms that the widely assumed and adopted (He/H) ratio of 0.1 is in fair agreement with our measurements.”

TDB-DST backs Nature-Powered Innovation: Supports ‘uBreathe Life’ for Indigenous Indoor Air Purification Solution

•  TheTechnology Development Board (TDB), under the Department of Science and Technology (DST), has taken a significant step toward advancing indigenous clean air technologies by extending financial support to M/s Urban Air Labs Private Limited, Gurugram, for their project titled “Development & Commercialization of a Made in India Efficient Wall-Mounted Air-Purification System for Indoor Premises.”
• This strategic intervention marks a commitment to improve the Air Quality Index (AQI) indoors through innovative, plant-based purification systems that remove both particulate and gaseous contaminants.
• A deliver sustainable, science-backed air purification solutions. The support aims to promote innovation in climate-responsive technologies while strengthening India’s self-reliance under the ‘Make in India’ and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ missions.
• The core technology harnessed in this product blends natural plant-based filtration with advanced engineering. Based on the ‘Urban Munnar Effect’ and a patented innovation called ‘Breathing Roots’, the system enhances the natural air-purifying capacity of leafy indoor plants.
• Air from the room is pulled toward the plant leaves, then directed into the soil-root zone, where the purification process intensifies. The device features a centrifugal fan that creates suction pressure, allowing the purified air—processed through the roots—to be released in 360 degrees across the indoor space.
• Fitted within a specially designed planter box, the ‘uBreathe Life’ system stands out as a compact, aesthetic, and effective wall-mounted solution tailored for homes, offices, hospitals, and other indoor environments. It directly addresses the growing public health concern over poor indoor air quality and represents a game-changing innovation in the field of sustainable air purification.
• Speaking on the occasion, Sh. Rajesh Kumar Pathak, Secretary, TDB, said,
  “TDB’s support to Urban Air Labs reflects our mission to back indigenous solutions that address pressing environmental challenges. The fusion of biotechnology and engineering in this project offers a scalable, sustainable way to enhance indoor air quality, aligned with the nation’s clean technology goals.

How does the Breathing Roots technology function?

• A The Breathing Roots technology enhances the natural air-purifying ability of indoor plants by amplifying the phytoremediation process2. Here’s how it works:
• Airflow Optimization: The system pulls indoor air toward the plant leaves and directs it into the soil-root zone, where purification intensifies.
• Microbial Filtration: The microbes in the soil and roots help break down pollutants like COx, NOx, SOx, and TVOCs (toxic volatile organic compounds).
• Phytodegradation & Phytovolatilization: The plant tissues absorb contaminants and convert them into harmless gaseous forms, releasing purified air.
• 360-Degree Air Circulation: A centrifugal fan creates suction pressure, ensuring purified air is evenly distributed across the indoor space.
• This innovative approach merges biotechnology and engineering, making indoor air purification more natural, efficient, and sustainable

How Breathing Roots technology compares to traditional air purifiers.?

 1. Filtration Mechanism

• Breathing Roots Technology: Uses plants and soil microbes to filter air naturally. The air is drawn toward the plant leaves, then directed into the soil-root zone, where microbes break down pollutants like COx, NOx, SOx, and TVOCs (toxic volatile organic compounds). This process is called phytoremediation.
• Traditional Air Purifiers: Use HEPA filters, activated carbon, or ionizers to trap pollutants. While effective for dust, pollen, and bacteria, they may not efficiently remove gaseous pollutants like VOCs.

2. Sustainability & Environmental Impact

• Breathing Roots: A biodegradable, plant-based solution that does not generate harmful byproducts. It enhances the natural purification ability of plants.
• Traditional Purifiers: Some models emit ozone, which can cause respiratory issues. They also require frequent filter replacements, leading to waste.

3. Energy Consumption

• Breathing Roots: Operates with minimal electricity, using a centrifugal fan to enhance airflow.
• Traditional Purifiers: Often require continuous power, increasing electricity costs.

4. Air Quality Improvement

• Breathing Roots: Enhances indoor AQI by amplifying the natural purification process of plants.
• Traditional Purifiers: Can remove dust, pollen, and bacteria, but may not address all gaseous pollutants.

5. Aesthetic & Functional Design

• Breathing Roots: A wall-mounted, plant-integrated system that blends into indoor spaces.
• Traditional Purifiers: Often bulky and require regular maintenance.