Antibiotics most responsible for drug resistance are overused – WHO report

• The World Health Organization (WHO) today published an analysis of how antibiotics are used globally. The report is based on 2022 data from the Global Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) dashboard and the WHO Access, Watch, Reserve (AWaRe) system that classifies antibiotics into three categories:
• Access antibiotics are often recommended as first- or second-choice treatments for common infections because of their safety, low cost, narrow spectrum and low likelihood of causing AMR. At the 2024 UN General Assembly High-Level Meeting on AMR, countries committed to ensuring that Access antibiotics would account for at least 70% of global antibiotic use by 2030.
• Watch antibiotics have a broader spectrum and are typically more expensive. They are generally recommended as first-choice options for patients with more severe infections.
• Reserve antibiotics are last-resort antibiotics used to treat multidrug-resistant infections.
• Since GLASS started to cover antimicrobial use in 2020, 90 countries, territories and areas (CTAs) were enrolled by December 2023, of which 74 have reported national data. However, global participation remains below 50%, with gaps in data from non-European and lower-income countries.
• In 2022, overall, 18 out of every 1000 people received an antibiotic every day – based on a median of 18.3 defined daily doses per 1000 inhabitants per day (DID). However, antibiotic use varies by a factor of 10 between the highest-using and the lowest-using CTA. While these variations need to be better understood, they suggest patterns of both overuse and low access to antibiotics.
• Use of Watch antibiotics remains relatively high in many settings and therefore, only one in three CTAs is meeting the UN target calling for 70% of antibiotics to be from the Access category. Watch antibiotics contribute disproportionately to AMR and more must be done to avoid their unnecessary use when no antibiotics are needed or Access antibiotics would suffice.
• Lastly, some low- and middle-income CTAs reported little or no use of Reserve antibiotics, which are needed to treat infections caused by the most drug-resistant bacteria.

Immediate priorities

• The main findings of the report have immediate implications for policy.
• First, WHO will continue to assist countries in establishing sustainable surveillance systems for collecting high quality antibiotic use data. The WHO Academy will provide an online course to improve measurement, understanding and use of data on antibiotic use to strengthen capacity in CTAs.
• Second, countries need to implement stewardship policies so that prescribers default to using Access instead of Watch antibiotics whenever possible and avoid unnecessary use of antibiotics in the first place. WHO will work closely with partners, including the World Medical Association, the international organization representing physicians, who have a crucial role in taking forward this report’s next steps, particularly those relating to responsible prescribing.
• Third, countries need to ensure access to all essential antibiotics, including those in the Reserve category. WHO is working with partners, such as the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership, to develop a framework to improve availability of essential antibiotics for countries with limited resources.
• AMR occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites do not respond to medicines, leading to infections becoming difficult or impossible to treat, increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death. AMR risks reversing many advances in modern medicine. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics and other antimicrobials are major drivers of AMR yet inadequate access to essential medicines remains a problem in many resource-limited settings

Increases in vaccine-preventable disease outbreaks threaten years of progress, warn WHO, UNICEF, Gavi

• Immunization efforts are under growing threat as misinformation, population growth, humanitarian crises and funding cuts jeopardize progress and leave millions of children, adolescents and adults at risk, warn WHO, UNICEF, and Gavi during World Immunization Week, 24–30 April.
• Outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases such as measles, meningitis and yellow fever are rising globally, and diseases like diphtheria, that have long been held at bay or virtually disappeared in many countries, are at risk of re-emerging.
• In response, the agencies are calling for urgent and sustained political attention and investment to strengthen immunization programmes and protect significant progress achieved in reducing child mortality over the past 50 years.
• “Vaccines have saved more than 150 million lives over the past five decades,” said WHO Director-General, Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus. “Funding cuts to global health have put these hard-won gains in jeopardy.
• Outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases are increasing around the world, putting lives at risk and exposing countries to increased costs in treating diseases and responding to outbreaks.
• Countries with limited resources must invest in the highest-impact interventions – and that includes vaccines.”

Rising outbreaks and strained health systems

• Measles is making an especially dangerous comeback. The number of cases has been increasing year on year since 2021, tracking the reductions in immunization coverage that occurred during and since the COVID-19 pandemic in many communities. Measles cases reached an estimated 10.3 million in 2023, a 20% increase compared to 2022.
• The agencies warn that this upward trend likely continued into 2024 and 2025, as outbreaks have intensified around the world. In the past 12 months, 138 countries have reported measles cases, with 61 experiencing large or disruptive outbreaks – the highest number observed in any 12-month period since 2019.
• Meningitis cases in Africa also rose sharply in 2024, and the upward trend has continued into 2025. In the first three months of this year alone, more than 5500 suspected cases and nearly 300 deaths were reported in 22 countries.
• This follows approximately 26 000 cases and almost 1400 deaths across 24 countries last year.
• Yellow fever cases in the African region are also climbing, with 124 confirmed cases reported in 12 countries in 2024. This comes after dramatic declines in the disease over the past decade, thanks to global vaccine stockpiles and use of yellow fever vaccine in routine immunization programmes. In the WHO Region of the Americas, yellow fever outbreaks have been confirmed since the beginning of this year, with a total of 131 cases in 4 countries.
• These outbreaks come amidst global funding cuts. A recent WHO rapid stock take with 108 country offices of WHO – mostly in low- and lower-middle-income countries – shows that nearly half of those countries are facing moderate to severe disruptions to vaccination campaigns, routine immunization and access to supplies due to reduced donor funding.
• Disease surveillance, including for vaccine-preventable diseases, is also impacted in more than half of the countries surveyed.
• At the same time, the number of children missing routine vaccinations has been increasing in recent years, even as countries make efforts to catch up children missed during the pandemic. In 2023, an estimated 14.5 million children missed all of their routine vaccine doses – up from 13.9 million in 2022 and 12.9 million in 2019. Over half of these children live in countries facing conflict, fragility, or instability, where access to basic health services is often disrupted.
• “The global funding crisis is severely limiting our ability to vaccinate over 15 million vulnerable children in fragile and conflict-affected countries against measles,” said UNICEF Executive Director Catherine Russell. “Immunization services, disease surveillance, and the outbreak response in nearly 50 countries are already being disrupted – with setbacks at a similar level to what we saw during COVID-19. We cannot afford to lose ground in the fight against preventable diseases.”
• Continued investment in the ‘Big Catch-Up initiative’, launched in 2023 to reach children who missed vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic, and other routine immunization programmes will be critical.

How immunization addresses these challenges

• Joint efforts by WHO, UNICEF, Gavi and partners have helped countries expand access to vaccines and strengthen immunization systems through primary health care, even in the face of mounting challenges. Every year, vaccines save nearly 4.2 million lives against 14 diseases – with nearly half of these lives saved in the African Region.
• Vaccination campaigns have led to the elimination of meningitis A in Africa’s meningitis belt, while a new vaccine that protects against five strains of meningitis holds promise for broader protection, with efforts underway to expand its use for outbreak response and prevention.
• Progress has also been made in reducing yellow fever cases and deaths through increasing routine immunization coverage and emergency vaccine stockpiles, but recent outbreaks in Africa and in the Region of the Americas highlight the risks in areas with no reported cases in the past, low routine vaccination coverage and gaps in preventive campaigns.
• In addition, the past two years have seen substantial progress in other areas of immunization. In the African Region, which has the highest cervical cancer burden in the world, HPV vaccine coverage nearly doubled between 2020 and 2023 from 21% to 40%, reflecting a concerted global effort towards eliminating cervical cancer. The progress in immunization also includes increases in global coverage of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines, particularly in the South-East Asia Region, alongside introductions in Chad and Somalia, countries with high disease burden.
• Another milestone is the sub-national introduction of malaria vaccines in nearly 20 African countries, laying the foundation to save half a million additional lives by 2035 as more countries adopt the vaccines and scale-up accelerates as part of the tools to fight malaria.

Call to action

• UNICEF, WHO, and Gavi urgently call for parents, the public, and politicians to strengthen support for immunization. The agencies emphasize the need for sustained investment in vaccines and immunization programmes and urge countries to honour their commitments to the Immunization Agenda 2030 (IA2030).
• As part of integrated primary health-care systems, vaccination can protect against diseases and connect families to other essential care, such as antenatal care, nutrition or malaria screening. Immunization is a ‘best buy’ in health with a return on investment of $54 for every dollar invested and provides a foundation for future prosperity and health security.
• “Increasing outbreaks of highly infectious diseases are a concern for the whole world. The good news is we can fight back, and Gavi’s next strategic period has a clear plan to bolster our defences by expanding investments in global vaccine stockpiles and rolling out targeted preventive vaccination in countries most impacted by meningitis, yellow fever and measles,” said Dr Sania Nishtar, CEO of Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. “These vital activities, however, will be at risk if Gavi is not fully funded for the next five years and we call on our donors to support our mission in the interests of keeping everyone, everywhere, safer from preventable diseases.”
• Gavi’s upcoming high-level pledging summit taking place on 25 June 2025 seeks to raise at least US$ 9 billion from our donors to fund our ambitious strategy to protect 500 million children, saving at least 8 million lives from 2026–2030

Similipal designated Odisha’s second national park, after Bhitarkanika

• The Odisha government on Thursday (April 24) notified the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR), the world’s only home to wild melanistic tigers, as a national park spanning an area of 845.70 sq/km.
• It is the 107th national park and the second in the eastern state, after the Bhitarkanika.
• Proposed in 1980, the intention to declare Similipal as a National Park remained pending for over four decades.
• Similipal, located in Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district, is home to 40 royal Bengal tigers, shelter to 25% of Odisha’s elephant population and 104 orchid species, many endemic to the region. It is a haven for over 360 species of birds, and diverse mammals like leopards, sambar, and mugger crocodiles.
• A The forests of Similipal are a mix of sal trees, moist deciduous, and semi-evergreen types, creating a complex and thriving habitat for flora, fauna, and forest-dependent communities.
• The tigers of Similipal possess higher-than-normal levels of melanin, giving them coats that are more black with yellow stripes. Due to their unique lineage, they may be accurately described as pseudo-melanistic.

The impact of the move

• Calling it a landmark step towards ‘Viksit Bharat, Viksit Odisha’, Chief Minister Mohan Charan Majhi said, “The long-awaited declaration strengthens our ecological legacy, uplifts tribal aspirations and reaffirms Odisha’s commitment to sustainable development.”
• The remaining part of the 2,750 sq/km area will be considered as a wildlife sanctuary.
• “The final notification acknowledges Similipal’s multi-layered significance as a wildlife sanctuary, project tiger, UNESCO biosphere reserve, and elephant reserve, now united under the highest national ecological recognition,” said Odisha’s principal Chief Conservator of Forest (Wildlife) PK Jha.
• With the declaration of national park status, Jha said the notified area (845.70 sq/km) will now be ‘rights free’ and no human activities will be allowed, in a significant step towards conservation. Limited human activities are allowed in the case of a wildlife sanctuary.
• The national park notified area will include flora, fauna, and all other objects of historical and geographic significance. A national park cannot be downgraded to a sanctuary.

Conservation measures by the state

• The state’s forest department is implementing the Greater Similipal Landscape Programme to secure the newly designated national park and its surrounding ecological corridors. This includes camera towers and trail guard camera systems powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI), V-SAT communication networks for surveillance in remote zones, and a dedicated security force including one company of trained police personnel and ex-servicemen.
• In a step towards the recovery of the tiger population and to diversify the gene pool, two female tigers from Tadoba Andheri Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra have been introduced. “Their successful acclimatisation has set the stage for Similipal’s population to reach 100 tigers by 2036, reinforcing its role in India’s conservation roadmap,” said Jha.
• The state government has also launched the Ama Similipal Yojana, an integrated programme for livelihood enhancement and skill training for local communities, promotion of eco-tourism and cultural tourism and infrastructure upgrades in health, education and resource access

Why induction of 26 new Rafale M aircraft matters for the Indian Navy

• India and France on Monday signed a $7.4 billion (approximately Rs 63,000 crore) government-to-government contract for 26 Rafale Marine (Rafale M) fighter aircraft for the Indian Navy. Thirty-six Rafale aircraft were earlier inducted into the Indian Air Force from 2021 onward.

Why is the induction of the Rafale M important in the context of the Indian Navy?

• First, what is meant by naval aviation?
• Naval aviation is the use of military air power by navies, involving aircraft that operate from warships — such as aircraft carriers and other aircraft — or helicopter-carrying surface combatants, or land bases to support naval operations.
• It includes specialised naval aircraft designed to meet the unique demands of carrier operations and small decks, such as short takeoffs and arrested landings, and roles such as air-to-air combat, surface and submarine attack, maritime reconnaissance, search and rescue, and logistical support.

The key roles of naval aviation include:

• FLEET AIR DEFENCE: providing air cover for naval forces beyond the reach of land-based aircraft;
  STRATEGIC POWER PROJECTION: allowing deployment of air power without needing land bases;
  ANTI-SURFACE WARFARE: attacking enemy ships with air-launched missiles;
  SUPPORTING AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE: aiding marine landings and operations inland; and
  MINE COUNTERMEASURES: using aircraft to detect and clear enemy mines.
•  Naval aviation is crucial for maintaining control of the seas, supporting naval and ground forces, and projecting military power along distant shores. It includes fixed-wing carrier borne squadrons, land-based Maritime Patrol Aircraft, Helicopters and Remotely Piloted Aircraft operated from warships and ashore.

And what exactly is an aircraft carrier?

• An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and hangar facilities for supporting, arming, deploying, and recovering shipborne aircraft.
• It allows a naval force to project seaborne air power far from its homeland without having to rely on airfields ashore. Aircraft carriers as part of the Carrier Battle Groups are often the centerpiece of modern naval warfare, with significant strategic and diplomatic influence in deterrence, command of the sea, and air supremacy.
• Aircraft carriers are also adaptable and survivable airfields that are ready to control the seas, conduct strikes, and manoeuvre across the electromagnetic spectrum and cyberspace.
• About 50 carriers, operated by the navies of several countries, are currently active around the world. The United States Navy leads with 11 large nuclear powered carriers followed by Brazil, China, France, India, Italy, Russia, Spain, Thailand and the United Kingdom.

What is the history of carrier aviation in India?

• While Indian naval aviation will celebrate its 72nd anniversary on May 11, 2025, India’s carrier aviation began with the commissioning of the INS Vikrant in 1961.
• Since the 1960s, India has operated four carriers — the INS Vikrant (1961-1997), INS Viraat (1987-2017), INS Vikramaditya (since 2013), and the indigenously built INS Vikrant, which was commissioned in 2022.
• Through this unbroken period of 64 years, India has operated all major types of aircraft launch and recovery systems and continues to expand its carrier fleet, with future plans for additional indigenous construction.

But why does India need aircraft carriers?

• India requires aircraft carriers for several strategic, military, and geopolitical reasons.
• STRATEGIC DETERRENCE AND POWER PROJECTION: Aircraft carriers enable India to assert influence and maintain favourable balance of power in the Indian Ocean, a region critical for trade, energy flow and security for India and the world.
  PROTECTION OF MARITIME INTERESTS: More than 90% of India’s trade by volume moves by sea. Carriers help secure Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs), protect island territories, and deter potential threats.
  BLUE WATER NAVY CAPABILITY: Carriers allow the Indian Navy to operate far from home shores, reinforcing its status as a blue water force capable of extended operations and rapid responses to crises.
  CONTINUOUS OPERATIONAL READINESS: Having multiple carriers ensures that at least one is always operational on each coast, even as others are in maintenance or refit.
  NON-MILITARY ROLES: Carriers also play a vital role in Humanitarian & Disaster Relief (HADR) operations that project India’s soft power and the ability to respond to regional emergencies and calamities, which are not uncommon in the Indian Ocean Region.

How will the Rafale Ms help the Navy?

• Over the years, India has operated a wide variety of carrier-based fighters — from Sea Hawks, Alizes, Sea Harriers and, at present, the very capable fourth generation MiG29Ks.
• The country is now developing the fifth generation Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter (TEDBF), that is likely to be operationalised in the middle of the next decade.
• The 26 Rafale M jets, a four-and-a-half-generation battle-proven combat aircraft, will augment the existing MiG29K fleet.
• A great advantage that accrues with the induction of the 26 Rafale Ms for the Indian Navy is the commonality with the IAF Rafales. This provides the desirable scope for interoperability and joint training, as well as for maintenance and safe practices of these assets and their aircrew between the two services.
• The induction of this very capable aircraft in the coming years is a shot in the arm for the Indian armed forces, and shall ensure continued and enhanced combat capabilities across the full spectrum of India’s military might.

Why Tamil Nadu banned mayonnaise, and its strange Madras connection

• In India, mayo was mostly eaten by the Westernised elites, in colonial clubs and their post-independence copycat restaurants. Its ubiquitous presence in street food is something entirely new. Now, every hawker has a bottle of mayonnaise, which they squeeze over anything and everything – from sandwich and kathi roll filling, to veg momo and paneer tikka.
• Eggs can carry Salmonella bacteria, which can cause stomach infections, resulting in diarrhoea, fever, and dehydration. In extreme cases, patients might even have to be hospitalised.
• Salmonella is killed when eggs are heated beyond 160°f for 30 seconds. The other way to make them safe to eat is to pasteurise them by holding eggs at 140- 145°f for three-and-a-half minutes. Neither of these is done in traditional mayonnaise recipes.
• So, when a raw egg-based mayo is kept on the countertop next to a stove, out in the hot sun, it acts as a day on the beach for bacteria of all kinds. They multiply and contaminate every food item that has been blessed with a shower of mayo.
• In fact, traditional recipes for homemade mayonnaise, meant for Western home cooks, stipulate that it should be refrigerated and consumed within a week. Even in colder climes, mayonnaise is considered a delicate, slightly risky condiment.

Then why use raw egg yolks at all?

• The reason is that yolks contain an emulsifier called egg lecithin. It is made of molecules having a fat-attracting tail and a water-attracting head. When an emulsifier is added to oil and water, which would normally not mix, the tails hold onto fat droplets, and the heads attach themselves to water droplets.
• This is how an emulsifier, like a lecithin, holds oil and water droplets together to create a smooth, creamy emulsion.
• At the same time, the heads repel the fat droplets, keeping them apart, so that they don’t separate into large masses of fat, and stay evenly suspended in the water base.
• In the case of mayonnaise, the egg yolk holds together vinegar and oil when all three are whisked together. The method is to first slowly emulsify the oil by whisking it into the egg yolk, drop by drop. According to the celebrated chef, Heston Blumenthal, one egg yolk can emulsify two kilograms of oil, but a standard recipe uses one yolk for every 115-150 grams (125-165 ml) of oil.
• Commercially sold eggless, or vegan, mayonnaise usually contains soy lecithin, the most commonly used vegetarian emulsifier. You will find it in chocolates, ice cream, sliced bread, biscuits, and hundreds of other packaged foods sold in India. It is often mentioned in the ingredients as E 322 and INS 4150.
• Soy lecithin (or lecithins of sunflower seeds) works in the same way as egg yolks do in traditional mayo recipes. However, anyone who has tasted both kinds of mayonnaise will agree that the vegan ‘eggless’ mayos lack the rich umami flavours and the mouthfeel of a true egg yolk-based mayonnaise. But there can be no doubt that eggless mayonnaise is much safer to use in hot climates

Novel CAR-T therapy shows promise against hard-to-treat cancer

• A novel CAR-T cell therapy developed by a team of Brazilian researchers has shown promising results in treating a particularly stubborn form of lymphoma—one that affects the lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow and is often resistant to existing treatments.
• Named HSP-CAR30, the therapy targets the CD30 protein and has successfully completed its initial Phase I trial, becoming the first European CAR-T30 study to reach this milestone. The findings , indicate high efficacy in patients with relapsed or refractory CD30-positive lymphoma.
• “The most remarkable aspect is the 100 per cent overall response rate, which is extremely rare in patients who have already undergone multiple lines of treatment,” said Dr. Javier Briones“Additionally, 50 per cent of patients achieved complete remission, meaning the disease became undetectable through imaging and clinical assessments.”
• One of the standout achievements of the trial is the sustained response among patients. Approximately 60 per cent of those who achieved complete remission remained relapse-free after a median follow-up of 34 months.
• “This is crucial,” “because it shows that CAR-T cells not only take hold in the body but persist long enough to have a durable, positive impact on the disease. That’s exactly the goal of this type of therapy.”
• CAR-T therapies have already proven effective for B-cell leukemias and lymphomas. However, their application in CD30-positive lymphomas has been limited, largely due to poor cell persistence and high relapse rates. HSP-CAR30 appears to overcome those challenges.
• The Phase I trial involved ten patients with relapsed or refractory classical Hodgkin lymphoma or CD30-positive T-cell lymphoma. Results showed no dose-limiting toxicities, and CAR30+ cells remained detectable in 60 per cent of evaluable patients even a year after infusion.
• The therapy not only demonstrated safety and tolerability but also promoted the expansion of memory T cells—cells that help the body retain long-term immunity—suggesting a long-lasting therapeutic effect.
• These findings offer new hope for patients facing limited options, marking a potentially transformative step in the treatment of resistant lymphomas

What you must know about UNESCO Global Geoparks for UPSC CSE

• UNESCO has added 16 additional sites from 11 nations to its Global Geoparks Network, which celebrates its tenth anniversary this year. The new geoparks are in China, North Korea, Ecuador, Indonesia, Italy, Norway, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Vietnam.
• UNESCO Global Geoparks are single, unified geographical areas where sites and landscapes of international geological significance are managed with a comprehensive approach of protection, education and sustainable development.
• According to UNESCO’s official site, “A UNESCO Global Geopark uses its geological heritage, in connection with all other aspects of the area’s natural and cultural heritage, to enhance awareness and understanding of key issues facing society, such as using our earth’s resources sustainably, mitigating the effects of climate change and reducing natural hazard-related risks.”
• Global Geoparks are established through a bottom-up approach of combining conservation with sustainable development while involving all relevant local and regional stakeholders and authorities in the area.
• At present, there are 229 UNESCO Global Geoparks in 50 countries. North Korea recorded its historic first with the inclusion of its site in the UNESCO Global Geoparks Network, while Saudi Arabia has made its debut on the list with two newly designated geoparks.
• As of April 30, 2025, India does not have any UNESCO Global Geoparks. While India has identified several geological heritage sites and is exploring the idea of developing geoparks, none have yet been recognised by UNESCO.

Criteria to be a UNESCO Global Geopark

• The criteria for an area to become a UNESCO Global Geopark are set out in the Operational Guidelines for UNESCO Global Geoparks. There are four fundamental features to a UNESCO Global Geopark.
• 1. Geological heritage of international value: The area must have geological heritage of international value.
• 2. Effective management structure: UNESCO Global Geoparks are managed by a body having legal existence recognized under national legislation.
• A 3. Visibility: UNESCO Global Geoparks promote sustainable local economic development mainly through geotourism. To stimulate the geotourism in the area, it is crucial that a UNESCO Global Geopark has visibility.
• 4. Networking: Membership of the Global Geoparks Network (GGN) is obligatory for UNESCO Global Geoparks.

Is the designation of  UNESCO Global Geoparks fixed?

• Notably, sites are given the designation of UNESCO Global Geoparks for a period of four years after which the functioning and quality of each UNESCO Global Geopark is thoroughly re-examined during a revalidation process. According to UNESCO’s official site-
• If, on the basis of the field evaluation report, the UNESCO Global Geopark continues to fulfill the criteria, the area will continue as a UNESCO Global Geopark for a further four-year period (so-called “green card”).

 If the area no longer fulfills the criteria, the management body will be informed to take appropriate steps within a two-year period (so-called “yellow card”).

• Should the UNESCO Global Geopark not fulfill the criteria within two years after receiving a “yellow card”, the area will lose its status as a UNESCO Global Geopark (so-called “red card”).

New literary works in UNESCO’s Memory of the World (MoW) Programme

• UNESCO’s Memory of the World (MoW) programme, launched in 1992, is an international cooperation strategy aimed at safeguarding, protecting, and facilitating access to and the use of documentary heritage, particularly rare and endangered heritage.
• Beginning in 1997, the Register has been biennally updated, with the exception of a lengthy gap between 2017 and 2023, with between nine (in 1999) and 78 (in 2017) additions. In any year, at most two submissions from a country are added.
• Recently, manuscripts of the Bhagavad Gita and Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra are added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register, taking the total number of inscriptions from India in the list to 14.
• Natyashastra: Natyashastra is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on performing arts. It is traditionally attributed to the sage Bharata. Comprising 36,000 verses, the “Naṭyashastra embodies a comprehensive set of rules that define natya (drama), abhinaya (performance), rasa (aesthetic experience), bhava (emotion), sangita (music),” the UNESCO citation says.
• Bhagavad Gita: Bhagavad Gita is a Sanskrit scripture comprising 700 verses that are organised in 18 chapters, embedded in the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic poem Mahabharata. It is traditionally attributed to the sage Vyasa.
• Notably, last year, three Indian literary works — Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and Sahṛdayaloka-Locana—were added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register. let’s also know about these literary works.
• Ramcharitmanas: This manuscript was authored by Goswami Tulsidas.
• Panchatantra: Attributed to Vishnu Sharma, this is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in verse and prose.
• Sahṛdayaloka-Locana: Written by 15th-century Kashmiri scholars Acharya Anandvardhan and Abhinavagupta, it was chosen for its aesthetic significance.

How draft Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity Targets aim to help India meet climate goals

• The government has notified draft Rules introducing targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by “obligated entities” in energy-intensive sectors and industries.
• The Draft Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025, notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change on April 16, puts in place a compliance mechanism for the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023 (CCTS).
• The CCTS was launched to create a framework for the trading of carbon credits, to facilitate the reduction of emissions in energy intensive industries, and to support India’s climate commitments under the Paris Climate Agreement of 2015.
• The draft Rules are open for objections and suggestions in a 60-day window from the date of their notification.

 What is meant by greenhouse gases emissions intensity (GEI)?

• GHGs are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to the “greenhouse effect” that raises surface temperature on Earth.
• The five most abundant GHGs in the atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Other GHGs include synthetic fluorinated gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
• GHG emissions intensity, or GEI, is the amount of GHGs that are emitted per unit of product output — the amount of GHGs that are released in the production of, say, 1 tonne of cement, aluminium, or paper, etc.
• The draft Rules define GEI as “greenhouse gases emission intensity in tCO2e/ equivalent output or product”. tCO2e, or tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, is the standard unit used to measure the impact of all GHGs, not just CO2, based on their potential to warm the planet.

So what do the draft GEI target Rules say?

• The Rules set forth baseline emissions for 2023-24 and define gradual reduction targets for the years 2025-26 and 2026-27 as part of the mechanism to make India’s Carbon Credits Trading Scheme, 2023, operational.
• GHG intensity reduction targets and benchmarks have been set for the highly energy-intensive aluminium, chlor-alkali, pulp and paper, and cement industries.
• These targets, for a two-year period starting 2025-26, cover 282 entities or industrial units in these industries — 13 aluminium plants, 186 cement plants, 53 pulp and paper plants, and 30 chlor-alkali plants.
• Among the large corporations that have been assigned targets under the Rules are Vedanta, Hindalco, Bharat Aluminium, JSW Cement, Ultratech, Nalco, JK Cement, Dalmia Cement, Shree Cement, Grasim Industries, and JK Paper.
• The Rules also lay down the mechanism for industries to comply with these targets, and specify penalties for their failure to do so.

Why is it important to have the targets?

• The introduction of industry-specific targets is crucial to meet India’s climate goals. The ultimate objective is to push industries towards a low-carbon growth trajectory through reduction, removal or avoidance of GHG emissions.
• A cement plant can, for example, reduce its GEI by adopting cleaner and greener processes in the various stages of production. It could replace the use of coal with biomass, and adopt cleaner, more energy-efficient kilns.
• More importantly, the Rules aim to help India meet a key commitment made under the Paris Agreement — to reduce the emissions intensity of its gross domestic product (the amount of energy used per unit of GDP) by 45% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
• An overall objective of the Rules is “to promote the adoption of sustainable, cutting-edge technologies across traditionally high-emission industries, for addressing climate change”.
• Not all of this is entirely new. While targets have been set for the reduction of GHG emissions intensity for the first time, a scheme to improve energy efficiency, known as PAT — Perform, Achieve, Trade — has been running since 2012.

And how do these draft Rules tie into India’s carbon credit trading scheme?

• The CCTS established a framework for generating, trading, and using carbon credit certificates.
• Under Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, the international treaty that committed industrialised countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce GHG emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets, countries that have emission units to spare — permitted but “unused” — were allowed to sell this excess capacity to countries that were over their targets.
• Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, this trade is spoken of as trading in carbon in the “carbon market”.
• With the introduction of the GEI targets, industries will know what exactly to achieve in order to earn carbon credits. They will also have to create action plans towards achieving those goals.
• Industries will be issued carbon credits for cutting emissions intensity, which they can trade on India’s carbon market. Industries that fail to meet their obligations under the carbon trading scheme would have to buy credits to meet their compliance shortfall, or be penalised by the Central Pollution Control Board, as per the Rules.
• Carbon credits are traded through the Indian Carbon Market platform, with oversight of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency under the Union Ministry of Power.
• The availability of credits provide industries with the incentive to decarbonise. Industries with resources to adopt clean technology can use their credits to earn profits, while those with fewer resources can make the shift gradually by buying carbon credits.
• Similar carbon credit markets have been operational elsewhere in the world — in Europe and China since 2005 and 2021 respectively

The history and evolution of monsoon forecasting in India

• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has forecast ‘above normal’ rainfall — 105% of the long-period average (LPA) — during the June-September southwest monsoon season.
• The IMD said earlier this month that all major drivers of the Indian monsoon, such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), were favourable.
• The four-month southwest monsoon season brings almost 70% of the country’s annual rainfall. It is critical for agriculture and crops, for the economy as a whole, and to recharge reservoirs and aquifers. Accurate forecasts of the monsoon are key for the government to prepare for a range of eventualities.
• The April 15 forecast was the first of the IMD’s long-range forecasts for this year’s monsoon. A second-stage or updated forecast will be made in the last week of May, ahead of the monsoon striking the coast of Kerala. Long-range forecasts can be made for 30 days to up to two years into the future.
• The four-month southwest monsoon season brings almost 70% of the country’s annual rainfall. It is critical for agriculture and crops, for the economy as a whole, and to recharge reservoirs and aquifers. (Source: File)
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has forecast ‘above normal’ rainfall — 105% of the long-period average (LPA) — during the June-September southwest monsoon season.
• The IMD said earlier this month that all major drivers of the Indian monsoon, such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), were favourable.
• The four-month southwest monsoon season brings almost 70% of the country’s annual rainfall. It is critical for agriculture and crops, for the economy as a whole, and to recharge reservoirs and aquifers. Accurate forecasts of the monsoon are key for the government to prepare for a range of eventualities.
• The April 15 forecast was the first of the IMD’s long-range forecasts for this year’s monsoon. A second-stage or updated forecast will be made in the last week of May, ahead of the monsoon striking the coast of Kerala. Long-range forecasts can be made for 30 days to up to two years into the future.

The first forecasts

• A systematic effort to forecast monsoon rainfall began in 1877, two years after the IMD was established with the British meteorologist and palaeontologist Henry Francis Blanford as the first Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India.
• Crop failure that began in the Deccan plateau in the previous year had set off the Great Famine of 1876-78, and the effects were felt across the country by 1877. The colonial administration saw an acute need to understand the arrival of the monsoon and the distribution of rain over the country.
• “The success of the monsoons dictated agricultural production and the health of rivers, coasts, and shipping lanes — i.e., revenue generation for British interests,” Ramesh Subramanian of Quinnipiac University in the US wrote in his paper ‘Monsoons, Computers, Satellites: History and Politics of Weather Monitoring in India’ (2021).
•  SNOW & RAIN…: The first tentative forecasts of the monsoon were provided by Blanford between 1882 and 1885, who analysed the relationship between Himalayan snow cover and the amount of rainfall over the Indian region.
• Blanford’s forecasts were “based on the inverse relationship between Himalayan winter and spring snow accumulation and subsequent summer monsoon rainfall over India. It was assumed that, in general, varying extent and thickness of the Himalayan snow has a great and prolonged influence on the climate conditions and weather of the plains of northwest India,” the IMD says in its official account of the evolution of meteorology in India.
• In 1886, Blanford made the first long-range forecast (LRF) of monsoon rainfall for the whole of India and Burma, based on this inverse relationship hypothesis.
• Blanford was succeeded by Sir John Eliot, who was appointed the first Director General of Indian Observatories, equivalent to the position of the head of the IMD today, in May 1889 at its Calcutta headquarters.
• 28 PREDICTORS, STATISTICAL CORRELATIONS: Walker developed the first objective models based on statistical correlations between monsoon rainfall and antecedent global atmospheric, land, and ocean parameters. To make his forecasts, Walker identified 28 parameters or predictors with a significant and stable historical relationship with the Indian monsoon.
• Walker described three large-scale see-saw variations in global pressure patterns — Southern Oscillation (SO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and North Pacific Oscillation (NPO).
• “Among these, SO was found to have the most significant influence on the climate variability of India as well as many parts of the globe… The SO…was later linked to the unusual warming of sea surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean or El Niño by Jacob Bjerknes in the 1960s,” says the IMD.
• Walker also reasoned that the Indian subcontinent could not be considered as an undivided whole for the purpose of forecasting the measure of rainfall, and divided the region into three subregions: Peninsula, Northeast, and Northwest India.

After Independence

• The IMD stayed with Walker’s model of monsoon forecasting until 1987. The forecasts were not very accurate. “The average error of the predictions for the peninsula was 12.33 cm and 9.9 cm for NW India during the period 1932-1987,” M Rajeevan, a former Secretary to the Ministry of Earth Sciences, and IMD Scientist D R Pattanaik wrote in their paper, ‘Evolution of Monitoring and Forecasting of Southwest Monsoon’ (Mausam, IMD’s quarterly journal, 2025).
• The main problem was that several of the parameters identified by Walker had lost significance over time — meaning their relationship with the monsoon was no longer the same. IMD scientists attempted several tweaks to the model, but its accuracy did not improve greatly.
• GOWARIKER MODEL: In 1988, the IMD began to issue operational forecasts of the monsoon based on a power regression model developed by scientists led by Vasant R Gowariker, which used 16 empirically derived atmospheric variables as predictors in a statistical relationship with the total rainfall.
• The forecast for geographical regions was discontinued in favour of a forecast for the season over the country as a whole. Operational forecasts for Northwest India, Peninsular India, and Northeast India were reintroduced in 1999, but the geographical boundaries of these regions were different.
• Similar issues emerged in the new model as well. “In the year 2000, it was realised that out of the sixteen parameters, four of them have lost their correlation” with the monsoon, “and hence they were replaced by other predictors”, wrote Suryachandra A Rao, Prasanth A Pillai, Maheshwar Pradhan and Ankur Srivastava in their 2019 paper, ‘Seasonal Prediction of Indian Summer Monsoon in India: The Past, the Present and the Future’ (Mausam).
• The IMD’s regional forecasts remained inaccurate during this period. “The forecast error was more than model error for years like 1994, 1997 and 1999,” Rao et al wrote.
• The power regression model was critically evaluated after it failed to predict the drought of 2002 that followed 14 good monsoons and was the worst since 1987.
• TWO NEW MODELS: In 2003, the IMD introduced two new models of monsoon prediction, with eight and 10 parameters. It also adopted a new two-stage forecast strategy. The first stage forecast was issued in mid-April, and an update or second stage forecast was issued by the end of June.
• The new models accurately predicted the 2003 monsoon, but failed to forecast the drought of 2004, sending the IMD back to the drawing board.
• The Department re-evaluated its models with two major objectives: “(a) a re-visit of the suitable and stable predictors, which have physical relationships with monsoon rainfall and (b) critical way of model development based upon identifying the optimum number of predictors and optimum model training period etc.,” according to the 2019 study.
• STATISTICAL FORECASTING SYSTEM: In 2007, the IMD came up with a Statistical Ensemble Forecasting System (SEFS) to support its two-stage forecast strategy, and further reduced the number of parameters in its models.
• A five-parameter model replaced the eight-parameter model for the first forecast in April, and a new six-parameter model replaced the 10-parameter model for the forecast update in June. The intention was to ensure there was no “overfitting” of models, in which a model matches or memorises the training set so closely that it fails to make correct predictions based on new data.
• The Department also introduced the concept of ensemble forecasts. In this method, all possible forecasting models based on all the combinations of predictors are considered to create a single, more robust prediction.
• The new system helped the IMD improve its forecast significantly. The average absolute error (difference between forecast and actual rainfall) between 2007 and 2018 was 5.95% of the LPA (rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval) compared with the average absolute error of 7.94% of LPA between 1995 and 2006.

Forecasts in recent years

• COUPLED DYNAMIC MODEL: The improvement in monsoon prediction was also due to the launch of the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS) in 2012. This was a coupled dynamic model, which could combine data from the ocean, atmosphere, and land to provide more accurate forecasts. The IMD used MMCFS along with the SEFS for its predictions.
• MULTI-MODEL ENSEMBLE: The accuracy of forecasts was further enhanced with the launch of a system based on a “multi-model ensemble (MME)” in 2021. This new MME system used the coupled global climate models (CGCMs) from various global climate prediction and research centres, including India’s own MMCFS model.
• Since the introduction of SEFS in 2007 and the MME approach in 2021, the IMD’s operational forecasts for the monsoon have improved noticeably, the Ministry of Earth Sciences informed Parliament this February.
• BETTER FORECASTS, SCOPE FOR IMPROVEMENT: The absolute forecast error in all of India’s seasonal rainfall reduced by about 21% during the years 2007-2024 compared with the same number of years between 1989 and 2006, Earth Sciences Minister Dr Jitendra Singh told Rajya Sabha.
• IMD’s April forecasts, too, have become more accurate. The actual rainfall in the previous four years (2021-2024) deviated from the April forecast by 2.27 percentage points, well within the forecast range of 4%.
• However, there is still much scope for IMD to improve. In their paper, Rajeevan and Pattanaik pointed out that the Department should refine its dynamical models by improving systematic errors/ biases and teleconnectivity — significant relationships or links between weather phenomena — with global climate modes such as ENSO

Migration in North-East and Inner Line Permit System

• Northeast India often makes headlines due to conflicts and political tensions because of the rising influx of migrants within the states.
• We have heard of the case of Tripura and the heavy news of instability coming from Manipur very recently.
•  For the Northeast region, hoisting several indigenous groups rooted in unique cultures and traditions carrying the history of civilizations, the influx of migrants within the state often is not only perceived as a threat
• Migration, by definition, simply means movement of people from one place to another. There can be various factors leading to migration, such as better opportunities for work and livelihood, conflict, and even large-scale persecutions. It can be either internal migration within a country or international migration between countries. The very act of migration often is facilitated by an increase in transport, feasible communication links, urbanization, and industrialization.
• While there has been a lag in the study of migration as far as Northeast India is concerned, a lot of troubles and tension brimming around the region are also catalyzed by rapid increases in migration. The constitution of India gives its citizens the right to move freely in any part of the country.
• A proper analysis of migration patterns also helps study the momentum of changes taking place economically, socially, and politically in the country. It also acts as a future path to understand population redistribution in the country alongside considering factors of the number of births and deaths.
• Going back to the official status regarding the stance of migration, decades of understanding migration patterns have been considered by considering key changes of birthplace as the factor. Before 1951, a person was a migrant when he changed his birthplace district to another or state. Ten years later, since 1961, a person is a migrant if his birthplace is different from the place of his enumeration. A need to include last place of residence was mandated for the collection of migration data, and hence, since 1971, another ten years later, censuses have provided that a person is considered a migrant if either his place of birth or his last place of residence differs from the place of enumeration.
• Northeast states often lack proper research and available data when it comes to reliable data on migration. Often only when tension arises out of the issue is when the country learns about its facets in the Northeast. The concern for the Northeast majorly is the problem of a huge influx of migrants from other states of India and immigration from other countries, especially Bangladesh, Myanmar, and even Nepal.
• The Northeast region consists of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim.
• While India as a country accounts for 37% migrants in its total population, the Northeast, seemingly the most static region, no doubt has seen various changes in the past decades. According to the census of 2011, 14.9 million migrants, accounting for about 33% of the total population of the Northeast, are migrants.
• With a significant increase in number from the 2001 census, the Northeast region has been a pooling region for migrants increasingly.
• For example, the state of Arunachal Pradesh is the only state in the Northeast experiencing a whopping percentage of 45% of total migration, much higher than the national average. Considering 22% of the total migrants of Arunachal Pradesh constitute interstate migration, the state of Tripura experiences the highest number of immigrant populations, accounting for 72% of the total migrant population.
•  The Northeast region constitutes hundreds of indigenous communities sharing a unique history of civilization, culture, and traditions. With the alarming influx of migrants, efforts to assert regional and indigenous identities have become increasingly prominent.
• The agency of migration often leads to assimilation. This assimilation often contributes to subversive population polarization, often leading to conflicts arising out of political aspirations and insecurities.
•  A huge influx of migrants poses a certain threat for a region like the Northeast with small indigenous communities that can get easily engulfed by the majority migrants.
• This will mean the extinction of a facet of civilization having dynamic culture, traditions, and practices. It will mean rooting out centuries of heritage, wisdom, and knowledge from the face of the earth.
• Other than concerns of an increase in crime and conflicts, sensitive regions such as the Northeast, bordering several counties often brimming with a lack of trust against the Indian government, can fall into the hands of bigger powers who can use them as leverage to incite turmoil by pitting one against another, therefore bringing about security concerns for the country.
• As far as interstate migration is concerned, there has been an overwhelming anxiety built across Northeast states due to the heavy influx of migrants from other states of the country.
• Around 42% of migrants in the Northeast region are from various states of Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, the Andaman Islands, Odisha, and even Sikkim. Major states, except for Tripura and Assam, have a high number of migrants from other states. And the Inner Line Permit System has thus become a common call of approach to take up in the region to keep check on this interstate migration.
• Back during the British era, a policy was established by the British to regulate their stronghold of the North-East Frontier; it was also the first policy in the region referred to as the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation or the Inner Line Regulation of 1873.
• Although the policy was established to secure the region for commercialization largely, after the independence, the government of India relieved the policy by integrating several changes into the Inner Line Permit system in the 1950s.
• By simple understanding, the ILP is a travel document issued for visiting any protected or restricted areas of the country. It can be of several types, one issued for tourists and another for extended stays, mainly for work.
• The system is introduced in regions that need protection against any form of exploitation in the name of travel and tourism. To ensure that the indigenous element, including the social, cultural, customary laws, administration of justice, religion, land ownership, etc., stays protected, the permit with a limited timespan of stay, after which a renewal is required, also serves as a method to control the influx of migrants.
•  The documents are issued by state governments that have implemented the ILP system, and currently in the Northeast, three states—namely Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland. Although ILP has been demanded in almost all the states of the Northeast, states like Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura surprisingly have not implemented ILP so far.
• While India has been taking up considerable efforts to check interstate migration towards the Northeast, it has been lenient about its policy towards the immigrants.
• With its welcoming approach, the rise of immigrants in the Northeast also needs a serious check. Immigration or entry of foreigners is governed under the 1958 Foreigners (Protected Area) Order under the Foreigners Act of 1946 and the Passport (Entry into India) Act 1920.
•  Immigration, especially from countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar, is posing an equal threat if India’s stand for indigenous safeguard is considered. States like Assam have considered adopting the NRC, or the National Register of Citizens, to keep on record genuine Indian citizens. This record has been monitored and mandated by the Supreme Court in 2014.
• The NRC, with its nodal agency Registrar General and Centre Commissioner, aims to document legal citizens in Assam residing as of March 1971. This identification was also promised under the Assam Accord signed between leaders of Assam and Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
• Following this assurance alongside the Citizenship Act of 1955, updating of the NRC to identify illegal immigrants and help deport them was therefore carried out in spite of the many concerns of the NRC regarding documentation verification and discriminatory criticisms being highlighted.
• India’s Northeast has significantly evolved in trade and development, and in return has variably espoused concerns about interstate migration, but major states of the region, except Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Meghalaya, have a higher number of immigrants than the national average.
• The highest is Tripura, with 72% immigrants, followed by Mizoram, Assam, and Manipur. Although there has been a significant slowdown in the inflow of immigrants after 2011 as compared to 2001, community concerns still pose a huge threat involving aggressive identity assertion leading to socio-political conflicts arising out of insecurities to seek political power and resources.
• Therefore, a mass call for NRC to check illegal immigrants has become a movement for the region and the rest of India too. A fair understanding of migration in the Northeast and its concerns should also involve looking into the outflow migration from the region owing to a lesser number of opportunities in the region.
• Manipur and Assam have the highest number of out-migration. Manipur has the largest number of outflows per inflow, while the state of Assam has a balanced outflow per inflow. Other states have significant gains in the number of migrants. But what is significantly evident in the migration of the Northeast is that when the momentum of migration is often alarmingly ill-balanced, we often find instability. Tripura sets a big example with the tension arising since the late 1990s, with political and administrative space taken up largely by immigrants pushing the indigenous people towards the periphery.
• Manipur’s instability today also stems from huge concerns about illegal immigration from the neighboring country Myanmar. Hence, if India’s genuine concern is to protect indigenous rights, uphold social justice, and address national security concerns, NRC and ILP hand-in-hand and not individually can be a way forward. But these policies by far should ensure the discrepancies in them are not overlooked, and human rights are upheld through inclusivity and not marginalization and discrimination.
• Lastly, these policies should be kept in check to not completely isolate the Northeast from the rest of the country or restrict the region completely through a comprehensive, fair, and transparent approach so as to keep the spirit of India’s democracy intact