SECTION—A

1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: 10 × 5 = 50

(a) Discuss the psychological approach to the study of comparative politics.

The psychological approach to comparative politics emphasizes how individual and group psychology—emotions, perceptions, attitudes, and cognitive biases—shapes political behavior and institutions. It moves beyond structural or institutional analysis to explain why similar systems function differently across societies.

Features

• Focus on individual behavior: Examines how personality traits, motivations, and beliefs influence political participation and leadership.
• Role of emotions and perceptions: Highlights how fear, trust, prejudice, or hope drive political mobilization and voting patterns.
• Political socialization: Studies how family, education, media, and peer groups shape citizens’ political attitudes.
• Decision-making processes: Explores how leaders and masses make choices under uncertainty, often deviating from rational models.
• Group dynamics: Investigates how collective identities (caste, ethnicity, religion) and group psychology affect political outcomes.

Intellectual Roots

• Graham Wallas (Human Nature in Politics, 1908): Stressed the role of emotions and non-rational factors in politics.
• Harold Lasswell: Pioneered political psychology, linking personality and unconscious motives to political leadership and propaganda.
• Behavioral revolution (1950s–60s): Integrated psychology into political science, emphasizing empirical study of attitudes and behavior.

Strengths

• Provides a deeper understanding of political behavior beyond formal institutions.
• Explains variations in political outcomes across societies with similar structures.
• Useful in studying mass movements, voting behavior, propaganda, and leadership styles.
• Bridges political science with psychology, making analysis more interdisciplinary.

Limitations

• Risk of overemphasis on individual psychology, neglecting structural and economic factors.
• Difficulties in measurement and generalization of psychological traits across cultures.
• May reduce complex political phenomena to simplistic psychological explanations.

The psychological approach enriches comparative politics by showing that politics is not only about institutions and structures but also about human behavior and emotions. It laid the groundwork for modern studies of political culture, voting behavior, and leadership psychology, making comparative politics more holistic and nuanced.

(b) Neo-liberalism lightened neo-realism’s dark view of international politics. Comment.

Neoliberalism offers a more optimistic counterpoint to neorealism's pessimistic portrayal of international politics as an anarchic arena dominated by perpetual conflict and power maximization. While neorealists like Kenneth Waltz emphasize relative gains and structural constraints that breed mistrust, neoliberals highlight institutions and interdependence as pathways to mutual cooperation.

Neo-realism’s Dark View

• Core Assumption: Neo-realism (Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 1979) sees the international system as anarchic, with no central authority.
• State Behavior: States are rational, self-help actors, primarily concerned with survival and security.
• Implications:
• Constant competition and mistrust among states.
• Cooperation is fragile, temporary, and often undermined by relative gains concerns.
• War and conflict are recurring features of international politics.
• “Darkness”: The pessimistic outlook that international politics is dominated by power struggles, security dilemmas, and inevitable conflict.

Neo-liberalism’s Lighter Perspective

• Core Assumption: Neo-liberal institutionalism (Robert Keohane, After Hegemony, 1984) accepts anarchy but argues that cooperation is possible and sustainable.
• Mechanisms for Cooperation:
• International institutions (UN, WTO, EU) reduce transaction costs, provide information, and enforce norms.
• Interdependence: Economic globalization creates mutual benefits, making conflict less attractive.
• Regimes and rules: Shared norms and agreements stabilize expectations and encourage compliance.
• Optimism: States can achieve absolute gains through cooperation, not just relative gains.
• “Lightening”: By showing that institutions, regimes, and interdependence mitigate anarchy, neo-liberalism offers a more hopeful vision of international politics.

Examples

• Neo-realism lens: US–China rivalry, arms races, NATO expansion → security dilemmas.
• Neo-liberal lens: Paris Climate Agreement, WTO trade regimes, EU integration → sustained cooperation despite anarchy.
• COVID-19 response: Realist view highlights vaccine nationalism; liberal view highlights WHO coordination and global scientific collaboration.

Neo-realism emphasizes the inevitability of conflict under anarchy, painting a “dark” picture of international politics. Neo-liberalism, while not denying anarchy, demonstrates how institutions, interdependence, and regimes can foster cooperation, thereby “lightening” the realist outlook. Together, they provide complementary insights: realism explains why conflict persists, while liberalism explains how cooperation endures.

(c) Explain the non-traditional security threats in the context of food and environmental crises.

Non-traditional security threats encompass non-military challenges like food and environmental crises that undermine human well-being, state stability, and transnational cooperation, differing from conventional military risks by their diffuse, often human-induced origins.

Food Security Threats

• Hunger and Malnutrition: Rising populations, unequal distribution, and poverty lead to chronic food shortages.
• Climate Change Impact: Erratic rainfall, droughts, floods, and rising temperatures reduce agricultural productivity.
• Supply Chain Disruptions: Global crises (pandemics, conflicts like Ukraine war) disrupt grain and fertilizer supplies.
• Dependence on Imports: Countries reliant on food imports face vulnerability when global prices spike.
• Social Unrest: Food shortages often trigger riots, protests, and political instability (e.g., Arab Spring linked to rising food prices).

Environmental Security Threats

• Climate Change: Rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and desertification threaten livelihoods and displace populations.
• Resource Scarcity: Water shortages, deforestation, and soil degradation create competition and conflict over natural resources.
• Pollution: Air and water pollution undermine health security, increasing disease burdens.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Ecosystem collapse affects agriculture, fisheries, and long-term sustainability.
• Environmental Refugees: Communities displaced by floods, droughts, or cyclones create humanitarian crises and cross-border tensions.

Interlinkages Between Food & Environmental Crises

• Environmental degradation directly reduces food production (soil erosion, water scarcity).
• Food insecurity worsens when climate shocks disrupt harvests.
• Both crises fuel migration, poverty, and instability, creating ripple effects across borders.
• Example: South Asia faces recurring floods and droughts, leading to crop failures, malnutrition, and displacement.

Food and environmental crises represent non-traditional security threats because they undermine human survival, destabilize societies, and create cross-border challenges. Addressing them requires global cooperation, sustainable development, and resilience-building, not just military solutions.

(d) Discuss the political socialization of open and closed societies.

Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire political attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors.

• It occurs through agents like family, schools, peer groups, media, religion, and political institutions.
• The nature of socialization differs significantly between open societies (democratic, pluralistic) and closed societies (authoritarian, totalitarian).

Political Socialization in Open Societies

• Pluralism and Diversity: Citizens are exposed to multiple viewpoints through free media, political parties, and civil society.
• Critical Thinking Encouraged: Education systems promote debate, tolerance, and questioning of authority.
• Voluntary Participation: Individuals freely join political parties, NGOs, and movements, shaping their political identity.
• Agents of Socialization:
• Family: Encourages independent thought.
• Media: Free press provides diverse perspectives.
• Schools/Universities: Promote civic education and democratic values.
• Peer Groups: Encourage political discussion and activism.
• Outcome: Citizens develop a sense of political efficacy, tolerance, and active participation in governance.

Political Socialization in Closed Societies

• Controlled Information: State monopolizes media, suppresses dissent, and promotes official ideology.
• Authoritarian Indoctrination: Education emphasizes loyalty to the regime rather than critical thinking.
• Restricted Participation: Political parties are state-controlled; opposition is banned or marginalized.
• Agents of Socialization:
• Family: Often pressured to conform to state ideology.
• Media: Propaganda reinforces regime legitimacy.
• Schools: Teach obedience and nationalism aligned with ruling elite.
• Religion/Community: Sometimes co-opted by the state to reinforce control.
• Outcome: Citizens internalize conformity, obedience, and fear, with limited scope for independent political identity.

Political socialization in open societies fosters democratic values, pluralism, and active participation, while in closed societies it enforces conformity, loyalty, and obedience to authority. The contrast highlights how the structure of society shapes the political culture of its citizens, ultimately influencing the stability and legitimacy of regimes.

(e) Comment on the Red Lipstick Movement in the context of feminist rights.

The Red Lipstick Movement symbolizes women’s defiance against patriarchal norms, reclaiming red lipstick as an emblem of empowerment, resistance, and feminist rights. It highlights how everyday symbols of femininity can be politicized to challenge oppression and assert autonomy.

Historical Context

• Early 20th century suffragettes: Red lipstick was used as a bold statement of rebellion against restrictive gender norms. Elizabeth Arden famously handed out red lipstick to suffragette marchers in New York in 1912, linking cosmetics with women’s empowerment.
• World War II era: Women wore red lipstick as a sign of resilience and morale, even under Nazi oppression.
• Later feminist waves: Red lipstick became a tool of reclaiming female sexuality and identity, challenging stereotypes that painted it as immoral or frivolous.

Symbolism in Feminist Rights

• Reclaiming Agency: Red lipstick, once stigmatized as a marker of “loose morals,” was redefined as a symbol of self-expression and autonomy.
• Resistance to Patriarchy: Wearing it became an act of defiance against attempts to control women’s bodies, choices, and appearance.
• Intersection with Politics: In recent times, women have used red lipstick to protest against misogynistic leaders and policies, turning a cosmetic product into a political statement.
• Empowerment: It embodies strength, sovereignty, and confidence, challenging the notion that femininity is incompatible with power.

The Red Lipstick Movement demonstrates how symbols of femininity can be transformed into instruments of feminist resistance. By politicizing red lipstick, women have challenged patriarchal stereotypes, asserted their right to self-expression, and drawn attention to broader struggles for equality and dignity. It shows that feminist rights are not only fought in legislatures and courts but also through cultural symbols and everyday acts of defiance.

2.

(a) The world currently has been in the throes of a twin process of ‘democratic backsliding’ and ‘democratic backlash’. How would you explain this paradox? (20)
(b) The withdrawal of the United States of America from the World Health Organization is set to have far-reaching impacts on global health. Reimagining the existing WHO is vital for the global health agenda. Discuss. (15)
(c) Transnational actors have qualitatively transformed the world by the way of their fresh insights and actions. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples. (15)

3.

(a) Of late, centrist and centre-left political parties have been facing setbacks while centre-right parties have been in ascendency the world over. Comment. (20)
(b) Collective security and responsibility to protect (R2P) are uniform neither in scope, goals and methods. Explain. (15)
(c) Global South-sensitive model of globalization would prevent the danger emanating from overcentralized globalization. Discuss. (15)

4.

(a) Latin America has made moderate success in countering US-led global economic order by framing various organizations emphasizing regional sovereignty, economic integration and alternative development. Discuss. (20)
(b) How successful has the ‘ASEAN Plus Three’ been in addressing regional problems? Support your answer with specific examples. (15)
(c) “Trump’s return to the White House is a jolt to push the European Union to invest in its own defence and economic and technological revival.” Comment. (15)

SECTION—B

5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: 10 × 5 = 50

(a) China’s growing footprint and a tangible shift in power dynamics in Bangladesh has weakened India’s leverage in Dhaka. Comment.
(b) Would you agree with the contention that India’s inclination to lean on a ‘more aggressive hyper-realist posture’ has gained a new momentum in the aftermath of the Pahalgam terrorist strike? Comment.
(c) For India, a multipolar world order would also mean a multipolar Asia. Comment.
(d) Does the Non-Aligned Movement have any future in the wake of India’s growing indifference towards it?
(e) Historical ties between India and Japan grew into a ‘special strategic and global partnership’. Comment.

6.

(a) Critically analyze the different phases of India’s foreign policy since independence. How justified, do you think, is S. Jaishankar’s classification of the current phase as the phase of ‘energetic diplomacy’? (15+5=20)
(b) India maintains strong ties with countries that will assure a free and open Indo-Pacific and guarantee greater connectivity with rest of the world. Analyze. (15)
(c) The tariff threats have pushed India and the European Union closer. Evaluate the India-EU partnership. (15)

7.

(a) India continues to invoke its time-tested policy of strategic autonomy vis-à-vis both the United States of America and Russia by rejecting US’ offer of mediation on Kashmir issue and by refusing to criticize Russia in its ongoing war against Ukraine. Comment. (20)
(b) Trump’s unilateral imposition of reciprocal tariffs on scores of countries poses impending threat to the future of the rule-based multilateral global trading system under the WTO. What options do the WTO members have to salvage the organization? (15)
(c) NonAlignment 2·0 underscores India’s unique aspiration to emerge as a site for an alternative universality. Comment. (15)

8.

(a) India’s reluctance to perceive any ‘existential threat’ inevitably made the multilateral path to nuclear security a ‘default option’ until it decided to cross nuclear Rubicon in 1998. Identify and analyze some of the major reasons behind this shift in India’s position on the nuclear question. (20)
(b) Discuss some of the key drivers of India’s new interests in Africa which might help in developing long-term comparative advantage over China. (15)
(c) Discuss the potential role India can play in initiating a possible phase of trilateral economic engagement among India, China and Nepal. (15)