SECTION A

1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :  10×5 = 50 Marks

(a) What is common sense? How are common knowledge and sociology related to each other?

Common Sense

• Common sense is knowledge and awareness that is held communally (shared by majority of people). It does not depend on specialist education and in some respects states the obvious.
• It equates to the knowledge and experience which most people allegedly have, or which the person using the terms believes that they do or should have.
• Since common sense ideas are things “everyone knows to be true”, there can be no argument about their validity. A major problem with common-sense explanations is the fact that they effectively close-down any possible counter argument.
• Sociological knowledge on the other and hand, has greater validity than most forms of commonsense knowledge. Sociologists try to base their statements about human behavior on evidence rather than simple assumption.

Common Knowledge and Sociology Relationship

• Sociology is concerned with studying many things which most people already know something about. Everyone will have some knowledge and understanding of family life, the education system, work, the mass media and religion simply by living as a member of society. This leads many people to assume that the topics studied by sociologists and the explanations sociologists produce are really just common sense: what ‘everyone knows’. This is a very mistaken assumption.

• Sociological research has shown many widely held ‘common-sense’ ideas and explanations to be false. The re-examination of such common-sense views is very much the concern of sociology.
• Common-sense explanations are closely bound up with the beliefs of a particular society at particular periods of time. Different societies have differing common-sense ideas. The Hopi Indians’ common-sense make them do a rain dance to encourage the rain gods. Common-sense ideas also change over time in any society. In Britain, people no longer burn ‘witches’ when the crops fail, but seek scientific explanations for such events.

             Not all the findings of sociologists undermine common sense, and the work of sociologists has made important contributions to the common-sense understandings of members of society. For example, the knowledge which most people have about the changing family, with rising rates of divorce and growing numbers of lone parents, is largely due to the work of sociologists. However, sociology differs from common sense in three important ways:  

• Sociologists use a sociological imagination. This means that, while they study the familiar routines of daily life, sociologists look at them in unfamiliar ways or from a different angle. They ask if things really are as common sense says they are.
• Sociologists re-examine existing assumptions, by studying how things were in the past, how they’ve changed, how they differ between societies and how they might change in the future.  
• Sociologists look at evidence on issues before making up their minds. The explanations and conclusions of sociologists are based on precise evidence which has been collected through painstaking research using established research procedures.
• Sociologists strive to maintain objectivity and value freedom in their work.

It’s often said that women are naturally nurturing and men are naturally assertive. These ideas are treated as “common sense,” rooted in biology. But sociology shows that gender roles are socially constructed, not biologically fixed. From childhood, boys and girls are taught different behaviors through toys, media, and family expectations. These cultural influences shape how individuals express themselves and what roles they pursue. For example, women may be steered toward caregiving professions not because of innate traits, but because of societal norms. Sociology reveals that gender is fluid and shaped by context—not destiny.

(b)  What is the relationship (similarities and differences) between sociology and history in terms of their area of study and methodology?

Sociology and history share a deep and intrinsic connection. In fact, sociology has emerged as one of the most authentic outcomes of historical inquiry. Their close relationship has led scholars like G. Von Bulow to argue that sociology should not be considered a distinct science separate from history.

Similarities between sociology and history

Sociology and history are closely interrelated and actually are dependent on each other? History of culture and institutions is helpful in understanding past society, its activities and development. Similarly, sociology offers its tools such as social imagination, ideal types and so on which help in understanding and conceptualise past social events. Sociology is concerned with present but interested to situate its context in past. Both disciplines need each other to make a complete assessment of an issue. Sociology need to see past to understand the context and add value to its analysis. Similarly history also takes into account socio-cultural aspects while studying historical phenomena. Historian also needs social background and at times sociological concepts as well to write and explain historical phenomenon elaborately.

Differences between sociology and history

It is described that sociology is much concerned with present whereas history with past. Their approaches and purposes too differ accordingly. Furthermore, it may also be noted that the relationship between the two disciplines is marked by a number of myths and misconceptions too. For instance, sociologists are often considered by historians as professionals whose abstract jargons lacks sensitivity to particular time and places. On the other side, historians are often seen mere collectors of information who are unable to analyse their knowledge with required sophistication and methodical precision. History said to be more concrete and descriptive whereas sociology is considered more abstract and theoretical science. Though closely related to each other, the two disciplines are said to be two different intellectual enterprises in terms of their purposes, world views, approaches and methods.

Historical sociology is an outcome of intersection of the both the disciplines have emerged. It is also described that the historical sociology as branch of sociology has critically contributed to the growth of an interdisciplinary scholarship. Many sociologists, from the beginning of sociology as major discipline, such as Marx, Weber, Durkheim, later on Castells, Amin, Frank, Blaut, have elaborately contributed in this field. In nutshell, both sociology and history, though being two different disciplines in the domain of social sciences, are very much closely interrelated and supplements each other’s field of studies.

Together, sociology and history enrich our understanding of the past and present, offering complementary insights into the complexities of human experience.

(c)  What is a variable in social research? What are their different types? Elaborate.

A variable represents any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or quantified. Understanding the types of variables is crucial for conducting rigorous sociological research. They help researchers operationalize abstract concepts like inequality, power, or identity, and provide the tools to analyze complex social relationships.

Types

1. Independent Variable (IV)

• • The variable that is manipulated or categorized to observe its effect.
  • It’s the presumed cause in a cause-effect relationship.
  • Example: In a study on education and income, education level is the independent variable.

2. Dependent Variable (DV)

• • The outcome or effect that is measured.
  • It depends on the independent variable.
  • Example: Income is the dependent variable in the same study.

3. Control Variable

• • Variables that are held constant to isolate the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Age or gender might be controlled when studying the effect of education on income.

4. Intervening (Mediating) Variable

• • A variable that explains the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Job type might mediate the link between education and income.

5. Moderating Variable

• • A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Gender might moderate how education influences income.

6. Confounding Variable

• • An outside variable that can distort the true relationship between IV and DV.
  • Example: Parental wealth might confound the relationship between education and income.

Beyond their functional roles in research design, variables are also classified based on how they are measured. Nominal variables represent categories without any inherent order, such as religion or marital status. Ordinal variables have a clear order but no consistent spacing between categories, like social class or education level. Interval variables are numeric and have equal intervals between values but lack a true zero point—IQ scores are a common example. Ratio variables have all the properties of interval variables but include a meaningful zero, such as income, age, or number of children.

By carefully selecting and analyzing variables, sociologists can uncover patterns, test theories, and contribute valuable insights into the workings of society.

(d)  Can Merton''s reference group theory be relevant in understanding identity making in the digital world?

Merton proposed that individuals evaluate themselves and shape their attitudes, aspirations, and behavior by comparing themselves with reference groups – groups to which they belong (membership groups) or aspire to belong (non-membership/aspirational groups).

Two main functions of reference groups are:

1. Normative function – providing values, norms, and standards of behavior.
2. Comparative function – serving as a yardstick for self-evaluation and identity.

Digital World and Identity-Making

Virtual Reference Groups

• Online platforms like Instagram, Reddit, or LinkedIn allow users to affiliate with or aspire to groups they may never physically encounter.
• Influencers, fandoms, professional networks, and niche communities become reference points for identity, lifestyle, and values.

Aspirational Identity

• Users often curate their digital personas based on the norms and aesthetics of aspirational groups—fitness communities, fashion icons, tech innovators, etc.
• This mirrors Merton’s idea of non-membership reference groups that influence behavior and self-concept.

Normative Pressures

• Social media amplifies normative expectations—likes, shares, and comments become feedback mechanisms that reinforce group norms.
• Individuals adjust their online behavior to align with the perceived standards of their reference groups.

Multiple and Fluid Identities

• The digital world allows people to belong to multiple reference groups simultaneously—a gamer, a climate activist, a startup founder—all within different platforms.
• Identity becomes fluid and performative, shaped by the norms of each digital space.

Echo Chambers and Identity Reinforcement

• Algorithms often reinforce exposure to like-minded groups, creating echo chambers that intensify group norms and solidify identity.
• This can lead to polarization or deepened affiliation with specific ideologies or lifestyles.

Merton’s reference group theory provides a strong lens to understand identity-making in the digital world. Social media and digital platforms amplify the normative and comparative functions of reference groups by making aspirational lifestyles and peer comparisons constantly visible. While this fosters creativity and global identities, it also risks alienation and identity fragmentation. Thus, digital identity-making is best seen as an extension of Merton’s reference group processes, but accelerated and complicated by digital technologies.

(e)  Is the social stratification theory gender-blind? Elucidate.

Social stratification theory, especially in its classical formulations, has historically been gender-blind, meaning it largely ignored gender as a distinct axis of inequality.  

Classical Theories and the Absence of Gender

               Rooted in the works of Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, functionalism views society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability. Stratification is seen as necessary to ensure that the most qualified individuals fill the most important roles. Gender roles are justified as functional: men perform instrumental roles (breadwinning, leadership), while women perform expressive roles (nurturing, caregiving).

           Karl Marx and Max Weber largely ignored gender as an independent and structuring force of social hierarchy. Marx focused on class relations rooted in ownership of the means of production, viewing women’s oppression as a byproduct of capitalism rather than a distinct system of domination. Similarly, Weber’s multidimensional model—emphasizing class, status, and party—did not integrate gender as a core dimension of stratification, despite recognizing status groups. As a result, women’s labor, particularly unpaid domestic work, was rendered invisible, and household stratification was often reduced to the status of the male breadwinner.

Feminist Critique: Gender as a Foundational Stratifier

Feminist scholars argue that gender is not secondary but foundational to social stratification. They critique the assumption that class alone determines social position, pointing out that women experience inequality not only through class but through patriarchal structures that systematically privilege men. For instance, the sexual division of labor—where women are assigned caregiving and reproductive roles—creates a separate and unequal status that persists across class lines. This results in phenomena like the wage gap, occupational segregation, and the “second shift” of domestic labor, all of which reflect gender-based stratification independent of class.

Intersectionality – Contemporary

The concept of intersectionality, introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw, further exposes the limitations of traditional stratification theories. It demonstrates that gender does not operate in isolation but intersects with race, caste, and class to produce unique forms of oppression. For example, a Dalit woman in India faces compounded disadvantages due to her gender, caste, and class, which cannot be understood by analyzing any single factor alone. Traditional models fail to capture such layered inequalities, reinforcing their gender-blind nature.

Scholars like Ortner and Whitehead have proposed that gender itself functions as a prestige structure, where men are universally assigned higher status through public roles (e.g., chief, priest), while women’s status is mediated through relationships to men (e.g., wife, mother). This structural devaluation of women is not an outcome of class but a cross-cultural pattern, suggesting that gender must be treated as a primary, not auxiliary, dimension of stratification.

While traditional social stratification theory was indeed gender-blind, contemporary sociology has evolved to integrate gender as a central dimension of analysis. This transformation owes much to feminist scholarship, which reframed gender from a peripheral concern to a core component of social structure.

2. 

1. What is positivism? Critically analyse the major arguments against it. (20 marks)

Positivism is a philosophical and methodological approach that asserts that authentic knowledge is derived exclusively from empirical, observable, and measurable facts obtained through scientific methods. In sociology, positivism holds that society functions according to general laws akin to natural laws, and social phenomena can be studied objectively through empirical observation, statistical analysis, and controlled experiments. This approach emphasizes the collection of quantitative data and inductive reasoning to uncover social facts—such as institutions, norms, and values—that exist independently of individual consciousness and govern social behavior.

Auguste Comte, regarded as the father of sociology, pioneered positivism asserting that sociology should emulate natural sciences to generate objective and testable knowledge about social order and progress. Positivists believe that sociology can identify causal relationships and propose social reforms based on scientific findings.

Positivists emphasize:

• Objectivity
• Quantification
• Value-neutrality
• Predictability and control

Criticisms of Positivism

Human behavior is shaped by beliefs, emotions, and interpretations—not just external forces. Social phenomena must be understood within their cultural and historical contexts. Unlike natural sciences, sociology cannot rely on fixed laws due to the complexity of human behavior. Sociology should explore how individuals create and negotiate meaning in their social worlds.

Max Weber

• Weber rejected the idea that sociology should mimic the natural sciences. He emphasized Verstehen (interpretive understanding) to grasp the subjective meanings behind social actions.
• Advocated for a value-conscious sociology that recognizes cultural context and individual agency.

Georg Simmel

• Simmel argued that positivism oversimplifies social reality by ignoring the fluid and dynamic nature of human interactions.
• Focused on micro-level interactions and the importance of individual consciousness in shaping society.

Wilhelm Dilthey

• Dilthey distinguished between the natural sciences (explaining phenomena) and human sciences (understanding meaning). He believed positivism failed to capture the richness of human experience.
• Pioneered hermeneutics as a method for interpreting social life.

Rickert and the German Idealists

• They challenged the idea of universal laws in sociology, arguing that social phenomena are historically and culturally specific.
• Emphasized the importance of values and historical context in social analysis.

Phenomenologists (e.g., Alfred Schutz)

• Positivism ignores the lived experiences and consciousness of individuals.
• Developed methods to study how people construct meaning in everyday life.

While positivism laid the foundation for sociology as a scientific discipline, its limitations have led to richer, more nuanced approaches. A balanced sociological inquiry often integrates empirical rigor with interpretive depth, recognizing that society is both structured and meaningfully constructed.

b. Highlight the main features of historical materialism as propounded by Marx. How far is this theory relevant in understanding contemporary societies? Explain. (20 marks)

Historical materialism is Marx’s framework for understanding societal development through the lens of material and economic conditions. Its key features include:

Material Conditions Drive History

• • Marx argued that history is shaped not by ideas or morality, but by material forces—especially the mode of production (how goods are produced) and the relations of production (who owns and controls resources).

Base and Superstructure Model

• • Society consists of:
  • Economic Base: Forces and relations of production.
  • Superstructure: Institutions like law, politics, religion, and culture, which are shaped by the base.

Class Struggle as Engine of Change

• • Social change occurs through conflict between classes—e.g., slaves vs. masters, serfs vs. feudal lords, proletariat vs. bourgeoisie.

Stages of Societal Development

• • Marx identified historical stages: primitive communism → slavery → feudalism → capitalism → socialism → communism.

Dialectical Process

• • Change is driven by contradictions within the economic system, resolved through revolutionary transformation.

Relevance in Contemporary Societies

Historical materialism remains relevant for understanding social inequalities and economic power dynamics today. It helps to analyze:

• Capitalist Economy: The role of class relations, exploitation, and how economic interests shape politics and culture.
• Globalization: International class dynamics and the effects of capitalist expansion on different societies.
• Social Movements: Class-based resistance and struggles for economic justice.
• Technology and Labor: Changes in productive forces (automation, AI) shaping work and social relations.

Criticisms

• Economic Determinism: Critics argue Marx overemphasized economics and neglected culture, gender, and identity.
• Failure to Predict Outcomes: Marx’s prediction of capitalism’s collapse and proletarian revolution hasn’t materialized as expected.
• Complexity of Modern Societies: Contemporary societies are shaped by multiple intersecting factors—race, gender, technology—not just class.

Historical materialism remains a powerful tool for analyzing structural inequalities and systemic change. While its deterministic aspects have been challenged, its emphasis on economic foundations and class dynamics continues to inform critical sociology, political economy, and global studies.

c. What do you mean by reliability? Discuss the importance of reliability in social science research. (10 marks).

Reliability in social science research refers to the consistency, stability, and dependability of a measurement instrument or research procedure. It means that the tool or method used to collect data produces the same results under consistent conditions over time. For example, if a questionnaire measuring political attitudes is administered to the same group twice under similar conditions, a reliable instrument will yield similar results.

Types of Reliability

• Test-Retest Reliability: Consistency of results over time.
• Inter-Rater Reliability: Agreement among different observers or researchers.
• Internal Consistency: Consistency among items within a test (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha).
• Parallel-Forms Reliability: Consistency between different versions of a test.

Importance of Reliability in Social Science Research

Ensures Credibility of Findings

• • Reliable data builds trust in the research outcomes and supports valid conclusions.

Facilitates Replication

• • Other researchers can replicate the study and verify results, strengthening scientific rigor.

Supports Validity

• • While reliability doesn’t guarantee validity, unreliable tools cannot be valid. Reliable instruments are a prerequisite for accurate measurement.

Improves Policy and Practice

• • Reliable research informs evidence-based decisions in areas like education, public health, and governance.

Reduces Measurement Error

• • It minimizes random errors that can distort findings and interpretations

Without reliability, data becomes unstable and interpretations questionable, undermining the entire research process. By prioritizing reliable methods and instruments, social scientists can produce insights that genuinely reflect social realities and contribute meaningfully to theory, policy, and practice.

3. 

1. Compare capability deprivation approach with that of social capital deprivation in understanding chronic poverty. (20 marks)

Chronic poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon that cannot be fully understood through income-based metrics alone. Two influential frameworks—the capability deprivation approach and the social capital deprivation approach—offer deeper insights into its structural and relational roots.

Capability Deprivation Approach

The capability approach views poverty not merely as a lack of income or resources, but as a deprivation of basic capabilities—the real freedoms people have to lead lives they value. It shifts the focus from what people have to what they can do and be.

Amartya Sen

• Pioneer of the Capability Approach
• In Development as Freedom (1999), Sen argued that development should be assessed by the expansion of people’s capabilities, not just economic growth.
• Core Idea: Poverty is the inability to achieve functionings—such as being healthy, educated, or participating in community life—due to lack of capabilities.

Martha C. Nussbaum

• Expanded the approach with a normative framework
• In Creating Capabilities (2011), she proposed a list of central human capabilities, such as bodily health, emotions, practical reason, and control over one’s environment.
• Core Idea: A just society must ensure that all individuals have the opportunity to develop and exercise these capabilities.

It understands chronic poverty as a lack of fundamental capabilities—real freedoms and opportunities to lead the kinds of lives individuals value. It highlights deprivations in basic capabilities like nutrition, education, health, and political participation. Chronic poverty here is the persistent inability of individuals to convert resources into valuable functionings due to both personal limitations and social structures restricting access to essential services and freedoms.

Social capital deprivation approach

Social capital refers to the networks, norms, trust, and relationships that enable individuals and communities to function effectively. Social capital deprivation occurs when individuals or groups lack access to these relational resources, leading to social exclusion, limited opportunities, and chronic poverty.

Pierre Bourdieu

• Contribution: Defined social capital as the aggregate of actual or potential resources linked to a durable network of relationships.
• Insight: Poverty is not just economic but also relational—those without strong networks are excluded from opportunities and influence.

Robert Putnam

• Contribution: In Bowling Alone, he emphasized the decline of civic engagement and community ties in the U.S.
• Insight: Weakening social capital leads to reduced trust, cooperation, and collective action, which can deepen poverty and inequality.

Social capital deprivation approach focuses on the absence or erosion of social networks, trust, and reciprocal relationships that provide individuals and communities with access to resources, information, and support. Chronic poverty in this view is intensified by weak social bonds and exclusion from beneficial social connections, which hampers a community’s ability to cope with economic shocks, mobilize collective action, and access opportunities essential for upward mobility.

Together, these frameworks reveal that poverty is not just about income or material lack—it is also about relational isolation and constrained agency. Addressing chronic poverty effectively demands policies that expand individual capabilities while also strengthening social bonds and community participation. Only by integrating both perspectives can we move toward a more inclusive and empowering model of development.

India’s government programs like MGNREGA, National Health Mission, and educational schemes aim to address capability deprivation, while community mobilization and self-help groups work towards rebuilding social capital in marginalized areas.

1. Are pressure groups a threat to or a necessary element of democracy? Explain with suitable illustrations. (20 marks)
2. What is hypothesis? Critically evaluate the significance of hypothesis in social research. (10 marks)

4.

1. Give an account of the recent trends of marriage in the Indian context. How are these different from traditional practices? (20 marks)
2. What would you identify as the similarities and differences in the elite theories of Mosca, Michels and Pareto? Discuss their main/crucial issues. (20 marks)
3. Critically analyze the sociological significance of informal sector in the economy of developing societies. (10 marks)

SECTION B

5.  Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :  10×5 = 50 Marks

1. In what way is the scope of sociology unique? Explain.
2. Does the structural-functionalist perspective on social stratification promote a status quo? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Do you think that the formal workspaces are free of gender bias? Argue your case.
4. How does Weber''s Verstehen address the objectivity-subjectivity debate in sociology?
5. To what extent can education and skill development be an agent of social change? Critically analyze.

6. 

1. What is science? Do you think that the methods used in natural sciences can be applied to sociology? Give reasons for your answer. (20 marks)
2. What do you understand by gender-based domestic division of labour? Is it undergoing a change in the wake of increasing participation of women in formal employment? Clarify your answer with illustrations. (20 marks)
3. How can you assess the significance of social movements in the digital era? Explain. (10 marks)

7. 

1. What is sampling in the context of social research? Discuss different forms of sampling with their relative advantages and disadvantages. (20 marks)
2. How do theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim differ in understanding religion? Explain. (20 marks)
3. What is the nature of relationship between science and religion in modern society? Analyse with suitable examples. (10 marks)

8. 

1. What do you understand by sustainable development? Discuss the elements of sustainable development as proposed in the UNDP''s Sustainable Development Goals Report–2015. (20 marks)
2. How do Civil Society Organizations such as NGOs and Self-Help Groups contribute to grassroot level social changes? Discuss. (20 marks)
3. In what way does queer kinship challenge the traditional kinship system? Substantiate by giving illustrations. (10 marks)