Dalle Khursani: A Profitable Spice for Farmers with Global Recognition and Health Benefits

• Sikkim''s agriculture is renowned for its commitment to organic farming, with one of its flagship crops being the Dalle Khursani, a prized and fiery spice. ''Dalle,'' derived from the Nepali word for ''round,'' refers to the chili''s distinctive spherical shape. Known for its intense heat, Dalle Khursani ranks among the hottest chilies in the world, with a Scoville Heat Unit (SHU) ranging from 100,000 to 350,000.
• Traditionally cultivated through sustainable methods passed down through generations, this chili has gained global recognition, especially after being awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag. Today, it stands as a highly profitable crop for both domestic and international markets.

Cultivation and Climate

• Dalle Khursani is well-suited to warm, humid climates with the best temperature between 20-25°C. The soil preference of this crop is sandy loam with a neutral pH of 6-7. Since Sikkim has naturally acidic soil, farmers add dolomite to soil to stabilize the pH.
• Dalle Khursani is cultivated mostly organically, and Sikkim being India''s first organic state helps promote organic cultivation.
• The farmers begin by planting seeds in the nurseries between the months of March and April. The seedlings, after 30-35 days, are planted in the field with a plantation spacing of 1m × 1m.
•  Organic manure such as farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost, and neem cake is applied to add more nutrients to the soil. Black plastic mulch is utilized to suppress weeds, retain soil moisture, and regulate temperature. Proper watering is required but not over watering is avoided to prevent the crop from causing bacterial wilt.

Nutritional and Medicinal Value Of Dalle Khursani

• Dalle Khursani is not only about being hot; it is also full of nutrients. It is full of capsaicin, which provides it with its spiciness. It is anti-inflammatory and antioxidant in nature.
•  The chili is also full of Vitamins A, C, and E, as well as minerals such as potassium, magnesium, and niacin. Its medicinal value makes it useful for digestion, pain relief, and metabolism. It is a natural antioxidant due to the occurrence of carotenoids and phenolic acids, which is all part of its overall health benefits.

Harvesting and Processing of Dalle Khursani

• The plant is ready for harvest 90-120 days after transplanting. The farmers pick the chilies several times (5-8 harvests) as they mature. Green chilies are used fresh, whereas red ripe ones are dried or processed to be made into pickles, pastes, and powders. The rising demand for organic and naturally processed spices has added to the economic value of Dalle Khursani.

Pest and Disease Management

• Dalle Khursani is a hardy crop that can be attacked by pests and diseases. The most serious pest problem for this crop is the fruit fly.
•  The fruit flies lay eggs within the fruit, causing it to rot and resulting in yield losses. Farmers can control this by placing fruit fly traps and manually removing infected fruits.
• The crop is also attacked by aphids, which suck sap from the plant and cause leaf curling. Organic methods, such as neem oil spray, are used to manage pest infestations without compromising the crop''s organic status.

Global Recognition and Export Potential

• The GI tag given in 2021 has considerably boosted the market value of Dalle Khursani. This recognition has helped in branding the chili as an exclusive product of Sikkim, making it easier to access international markets. There is an increasing demand for organic, high-quality spices globally, particularly in regions such as the USA, UK, and Australia.
• These countries are where people are interested in rare, naturally cultivated products. Dalle Khursani has the potential to be a luxury export commodity with appropriate processing, packaging, and marketing

Livestock Antibiotic Use Could Rise 30% by 2040, Finds Study

• A new study led by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and its research partners highlights that improving livestock productivity is crucial in reducing global antibiotic use.
• Without intervention, antibiotic use in livestock is projected to increase by nearly 30% by 2040. However, the studY, reveals that enhancing livestock systems could cut this projected increase by half.
• Under a business-as-usual scenario, global antibiotic use in livestock could rise to 143,481 tons by 2040. However, with improved productivity, antibiotic use could drop to approximately 62,000 tons, a potential reduction of up to 57%. This highlights the need for better animal health, management, and efficiency to significantly curb reliance on antibiotics.
• key aspect of the study is the introduction of the Livestock Biomass Conversion (LBC) method, which offers a more precise way to estimate antibiotic use across various livestock species and production systems.
• The 2024 UN General Assembly AMR Declaration calls for a significant reduction in antimicrobial use in agrifood systems by 2030. However, achieving this goal presents challenges, particularly in regions where livestock production is expanding to meet rising food demand.
• FAO’s Senior Animal Health Officer, Junxia Song, stressed the importance of collaboration among stakeholders to enhance disease prevention, strengthen monitoring, and invest in innovations that promote animal health while reducing antibiotic dependence.
• To support these efforts, FAO recently introduced the Reduce the Need for Antimicrobials on Farms for Sustainable Agrifood Systems Transformation (RENOFARM) initiative.
• This program aims to provide policy guidance, technical support, and capacity-building to help countries minimize antibiotic use while advancing sustainable livestock practices. Thanawat Tiensin, Assistant Director-General at FAO, reaffirmed the organization’s commitment to transforming agrifood systems by promoting responsible antimicrobial use.
• This advancement allows policymakers and industry leaders to develop more effective strategies to optimize livestock production while minimizing antibiotic dependence, contributing to a healthier and more sustainable global food system.

Isro successfully rolls SpaDeX satellites, pushes them to the limit

• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has achieved another milestone in its Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission by successfully conducting the “rolling” or “rotating” experiment.
• This test involved one satellite circumnavigating the other and returning to its original position while remaining in line of sight.
• The experiment, completed last week, was confirmed by ISRO Chairman V Narayanan to Times of India, as he emphasised the importance of ground simulations to avoid errors and maximise data generation
• The rolling experiment is being compared to Chandrayaan-3’s “hop” test on the Moon for its significance in advancing future space missions. It validates ISRO’s ability to control satellite maneuvering from ground stations using advanced software, sensors, and positioning technologies.
• This capability is crucial for future missions like Chandrayaan-4, human spaceflight programs under Gaganyaan, and satellite servicing projects.
• SpaDeX involves two satellites, SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target), launched together on December 30, 2024.
• The mission aims to demonstrate technologies related to orbital rendezvous, docking, and proximity operations.
• Earlier in January 2025, ISRO became the fourth country globally to achieve successful space docking using indigenous technology.
• With ample propellant remaining in the satellites, ISRO plans additional experiments to further refine docking techniques across various orientations, including vertical docking scenarios.
• These efforts are expected to provide critical insights into bringing objects to desired positions for docking under diverse conditions.
• This achievement marks a significant step in India’s aspirations for advanced space exploration, including lunar sample return missions and the establishment of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (Indian Space Station).
• The SpaDeX mission continues to be a vital platform for testing and validating technologies essential for autonomous spacecraft operations and multi-launch missions.

A look at ISRO''s future missions

Gaganyaan Mission

• Gaganyaan will be ISRO’s first attempt towards acquiring human spaceflight capabilities. Before sending the crew, the ISRO is planning to send an uncrewed mission to space under its Gaganyaan project.
• According to the enhanced scope, the Gaganyaan programme will have eight missions including two crewed and six uncrewed, Union Minister of State in the Prime Minister''s Office Jitendra Singh said in a written reply in the Rajya Sabha.
• Singh said the earlier Gaganyaan programme entailed one crewed mission and two uncrewed ones. The total funding for the programme has been enhanced to Rs 20,193 crore to address the programmatic requirements, according to the revised scope that includes new developments for the Bharatiya Antariksh Station and precursor missions, he said.
• The allocation also covers additional requirements to meet the ongoing Gaganyaan programme, he further said. The Gaganyaan project was announced in 2019 with the first manned space flight planned for 2022 and it plans to carry out two crewed space flights by 2028. 

Aditya-L1 Mission

• Aditya L1 is India''s first space-based solar mission, the main objective of which is to study the Sun''s Corona and its impact on space weather. The Aditya-L1 satellite, on January 6, reached its destination -- the Lagrange point or the L1 point.
• 5 million kilometres from Earth from where it will orbit the Sun and study it.

Mangalyaan-2

• The Mars lander mission is a proposed second mission to Mars by ISRO. After its first Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) was successful, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) called for ''Announcement of Opportunities'' on the second mission. Aiming higher, ISRO, through this mission, seeks to land a rover and a helicopter on the Martian surface. 

Chandrayaan-4 and Chandrayaan-5

• Chandrayaan-4 will involve at least two separate launches of the heavylift LVM-3 rocket that will carry five different components of the mission, which will be assembled in orbit. The mission aims to bring back samples of the moon rocks to Earth in 2027. 
• Meanwhile, the Central Government recently accorded approval for he ambitious Chandrayaan-5 mission to study the Moon, ISRO Chairman V Narayanan said. The Chandrayaan mission consists of studying the lunar surface.

Four planets discovered outside Solar System share a similarity with Earth

• A new discovery in exoplanetary science has revealed four small world outside the Solar System. While all of them are smaller than Earth, they share one commonality.
• They are all rocky planets orbiting Barnard''s Star, the nearest single star to Earth after the Alpha Centauri system.
• Located just six light-years away, these planets are notable not only for their proximity but also for their similarity to Earth in composition, despite being much smaller.
• Each of the planets, labeled b, c, d, and e, has a mass between 20% and 30% of Earth''s, making them among the smallest yet detected using the radial velocity method.
• The detection of these planets was made possible by advanced technology, including the MAROON-X instrument on the Gemini North telescope in Hawaii and the ESPRESSO spectrograph on the Very Large Telescope in Chile.
• These instruments measure the subtle shifts in starlight caused by the gravitational pull of the planets, which are akin to faint whispers compared to the background noise from stellar activity.
• The planets orbit their red dwarf star at extremely close distances, resulting in orbital periods ranging from just over two days for the closest planet to nearly seven days for the farthest.
• This proximity makes them too hot to support life as we know it. Despite their inhospitable conditions, the discovery of these rocky worlds is significant for the search for life beyond Earth, as small, rocky planets are considered prime candidates for hosting life.
• The discovery was published by an international team led by Ritvik Basant of the University of Chicago, marking a major step forward in understanding our cosmic neighborhooD.

Indian team develops unique material to boost AI, lighting, clean water tech

• In a significant breakthrough in materials science, researchers at Shiv Nadar University, Delhi-NCR, have unveiled a rare-earth-free composite material with promising applications in solid-state lighting, artificial intelligence (AI), and environmental remediation.
• Led by Professor Aloke Kanjilal and research scholar Bisweswar Santra, this innovation in the composites addresses global challenges by reducing reliance on imported rare-earth elements while providing a scalable alternative for next-generation technologies.
• The key advancement lies in the development of a phosphor that exhibits exceptional dual-band photoluminescence, spanning the visible to near-infrared spectrum.
• By optimising annealing conditions, the team has created a cost-effective solution for solid-state lighting, enhancing India’s self-reliance in advanced lighting technologies.
• Professor Kanjilal emphasised the importance of this development, stating, “This functional composite material is a significant step towards reducing reliance on rare-earth elements, enabling sustainable production of phosphors for solid-state lighting.”

Key highlights of this development include:

• Solid-State Lighting: The team optimized annealing conditions to create a cost-effective solution, reducing reliance on imported rare-earth elements and enhancing India''s self-reliance in advanced lighting technologies.
• Neuromorphic Computing: The composite enables forming-free, multilevel resistive switching devices that are ultra-low power, fast (response times as quick as 40 nanoseconds), and stable over 10,000 switching cycles. These devices mimic the efficiency of the human brain, making them ideal for AI applications.
• Environmental Remediation: The material demonstrates exceptional photocatalytic properties, breaking down organic pollutants like methylene blue in wastewater under UV radiation within just 25 minutes.
• Durability: It maintains its optical properties even under extreme conditions, such as Gamma radiation exposure up to 65 kGy, making it suitable for space exploration and nuclear facilities
• The composite also offers innovative solutions for neuromorphic computing, addressing the limitations of traditional von Neumann architectures.
• The research demonstrated its potential in developing forming-free, multilevel resistive switching devices that consume ultra-low power and exhibit response times as fast as 40 ns.
• These devices maintain remarkable stability over 10,000 switching cycles while retaining data for over 10,000 seconds, mimicking the efficiency of the human brain for AI applications.
• Beyond its optical and computing capabilities, the composite has shown exceptional photocatalytic properties, effectively breaking down organic pollutants like methylene blue in wastewater under UV radiation within just 25 minutes.
• This eco-friendly solution is crucial as India faces escalating water pollution issues.
• Furthermore, the material exhibits remarkable radiation hardness, maintaining its optical properties even under Gamma radiation exposure up to 65 kGy, making it suitable for extreme environments such as space exploration and nuclear facilities.
• As industries seek sustainable alternatives, this groundbreaking research reinforces Shiv Nadar University’s commitment to interdisciplinary advancements with real-world impact.

What is photoluminescence and why is it important?

• Photoluminescence is the emission of light from a material after it absorbs photons (light energy). This phenomenon occurs when the absorbed energy excites electrons in the material, lifting them to higher energy states. As these excited electrons return to their original state, they release the excess energy in the form of light.

Importance of Photoluminescence:

• Material Analysis: It helps researchers study the properties of materials, such as their composition, structure, and quality.
• Applications in Technology:
• Lighting: Phosphors with photoluminescent properties are used in LEDs and other advanced lighting systems.
• Displays: It''s crucial for technologies like OLED and quantum dot displays.
• Environmental Benefits: Some photoluminescent materials are excellent photocatalysts, breaking down pollutants in water or air.
• Medical and Scientific Use: It plays a role in bioimaging, diagnostics, and sensors.
• Energy Efficiency: Materials exhibiting photoluminescence can improve energy efficiency in various devices by converting light into different usable forms.

Core principles of neuromorphic computing:

Neuromorphic computing is based on emulating the structure and functionality of the human brain to achieve efficient information processing. The core principles include:

1. Brain-Inspired Architecture:

• Neuromorphic systems mimic the human brain’s ability to process information using interconnected neurons and synapses.
• This architecture moves away from traditional von Neumann designs, where data transfer between memory and processing units can create bottlenecks.

2. Event-Based Processing:

• Unlike conventional computing systems that process data continuously, neuromorphic systems operate based on events, processing information only when needed, which saves energy.

3. Parallel Processing:

• These systems enable simultaneous processing across multiple neurons, improving speed and efficiency for tasks like pattern recognition and decision-making.

4. Adaptive Learning:

• Neuromorphic hardware can adapt to new information and learn dynamically, similar to how biological brains learn.

5. Low Power Consumption:

• They achieve ultra-low energy usage, making them ideal for mobile devices, robotics, and AI applications that require prolonged operation.

6. Analog and Digital Fusion:

• Neuromorphic systems often use mixed analog-digital circuits to simulate the continuous nature of biological processes while maintaining computational precision.

By imitating the brain’s efficiency and flexibility, neuromorphic computing holds transformative potential for AI, robotics, autonomous systems, and more. This approach is especially critical for applications demanding real-time processing, adaptability, and energy efficiency.

AFSPA extended in Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland for another 6 months

• The Centre on Sunday announced that it was extending the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) in violence-hit Manipur, except in areas under 13 police stations in valley districts, for another six months. The stringent security measures have also been extended in the neighbouring states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland for the same duration,.
• The AFSPA has also been extended to eight districts in Nagaland and 21 police station areas in five other districts of the state for six months, according to a notification issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• • The law was also extended to Tirap, Changlang and Longding districts in Arunachal Pradesh and three police station areas in Namsai district in the state for six months beginning April 1.

What is AFSPA?

• Law and order is a State Subject. However, the central government is supplementing efforts of the state governments for curbing the illegal and unlawful activities of militant/insurgent groups of northeast states through various measures.
• These include deployment of Central Armed Police Forces, reimbursement of security related expenditure (SRE) to the state governments under SRE scheme, central assistance to the state governments for modernisation of state police forces, sanction of India Reserve Battalions, banning the Unlawful Associations operating in NE region under UAPA, declaring specific areas/states as “disturbed areas” for the purpose of AFSPA and issuing notifications for Unified Command Structure.
• The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act was enacted in 1958 to enable certain special powers to be conferred upon the members of the Armed Forces in the “disturbed areas” in Assam and Manipur.
• It was amended and extended to Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.
• If the governor of a state or the administrator of the Union Territory to which this Act extends or the central government is of the opinion that the whole or any part of such state of Union Territory is in such a disturbed or dangerous condition that the use of Armed Forces in aid of the civil power is necessary, the governor of state or the administrator of Union Territory or the central government may declare the whole or such part of such state or Union Territory to be a “disturbed area”.
• The AFSPA gives the Armed Forces sweeping powers to search and arrest, and to open fire if they deem it necessary for “the maintenance of public order”.
• AFSPA is imposed in areas where Armed Forces are required to operate in aid of civil authorities. 
• For AFSPA to become valid, an area, however, needs to be declared “disturbed” either by the central or the state government under Section 3 of the 1958 Act.
• The “disturbed area” notification under AFSPA was completely removed from Tripura in 2015 and Meghalaya in 2018.
• Civil society groups and rights activists have been demanding withdrawal of the “draconian law” from the entire northeast claiming violation of human rights by the armed forces.
• The cry to repeal the act gained renewed momentum following the death of 14 civilians in firing by security forces in a botched anti-insurgency operation and retaliatory violence in Mon district of Nagaland on December 4, 2021.

Key Provisions of AFSPA:

• The armed forces and Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF) deployed in “disturbed areas” are empowered to:
• Use force, including lethal force, against individuals acting in contravention of the law.
• Arrest individuals without a warrant.
•  Conduct searches of premises without a warrant. These forces are also protected from prosecution for actions taken under AFSPA without the prior sanction of the central government.
• Jurisdiction: Both the state and Union governments can issue notifications declaring certain areas as “disturbed”, granting the armed forces the authority under AFSPA.
• For Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, the Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) issues periodic notifications.

Disturbed Areas under AFSPA:

• Defined under Section 3 of the Act, a “disturbed area” is where the use of armed forces is deemed necessary to support civil authorities in maintaining law and order.

Declaration of Disturbed Areas:

• An area can be declared disturbed due to conflicts or disputes between various religious, racial, linguistic, regional, or caste-based communities.
• The central government, Governor of the state, or the administrator of the Union Territory can declare the whole or part of a state or union territory as a disturbed area.
•  Once declared, the region is maintained as disturbed for at least three months under The Disturbed Areas (Special Courts) Act, 1976.

AFSPA in Practice:

•  AFSPA has been in force primarily in the northeastern states of India, such as Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Manipur. 
• The Act was also applied in Jammu & Kashmir until its partial revocation in certain areas. 
• The scope and duration of AFSPA can vary depending on the region’s security situation. 
• State governments can make recommendations on whether the Act is necessary, but the final decision lies with the central government. 

 Arguments in favour of repealing AFSPA

• i) Colonial-Era Law: AFSPA is often compared to the Rowlatt Act of 1919, a draconian colonial law that allowed arrest without trial based on mere suspicion. Critics argue that AFSPA reflects similar colonial mindsets, prioritising control over due process and human rights.
• ii) Violation of Fundamental Rights: The law is seen as violating multiple Fundamental Rights mentioned in the Indian Constitution:
•  Article 14 (Right to Equality): AFSPA provides arbitrary powers to armed forces, leading to discrimination and inequality in the enforcement of law.
• Article 19 (Freedom of Speech and Expression): The arbitrary powers of search, arrest, and detention limit citizens’ ability to freely express their views, especially in conflict areas.
•  Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty): AFSPA allows the armed forces to take life without judicial oversight.
• Article 22 (Protection against Arrest and Detention): The Act enables arrest without a warrant, bypassing safeguards for citizens’ liberty.
•  Article 25 (Freedom of Religion): The powers under AFSPA can lead to targeting specific communities, especially those engaged in cultural and religious practices that may be viewed with suspicion by authorities.

iii) Violation of International Law: 

• AFSPA is seen as violating international legal standards, particularly:
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which guarantees basic human rights and dignity.
•  The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which India has ratified and which obliges the country to protect civil and political rights, including the right to life, liberty, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.
•  The Convention against Torture, as the immunity provided by AFSPA can lead to allegations of torture and mistreatment without accountability.
• iv) Lack of Accountability: AFSPA grants sweeping powers to the armed forces but includes immunity from prosecution without the approval of the central government. This lack of oversight is seen as fostering impunity, where security forces are not held accountable for alleged human rights violations, including extrajudicial killings and torture.
• v) Militarisation of Governance: Critics argue that AFSPA contributes to the militarisation of governance, where military authority takes precedence over civilian administration in conflict zones. This undermines democratic principles and weakens the role of elected representatives and civil society in decision-making processes.
• vi) Centre-State Conflicts: Law and order is a State subject under the Indian Constitution, and states are typically better positioned to assess and manage the security situation on the ground. AFSPA undermines states’ autonomy by granting the central government and military forces overriding authority, even in times when there is relative peace, creating friction between the Centre and the states.

Arguments Against Repealing AFSPA

• i) Safeguarding National Borders: AFSPA has enabled military forces to secure national borders, especially in sensitive regions like the northeast and Jammu & Kashmir, which are prone to infiltration and insurgency. The law empowers the military to act swiftly in hostile environments, protecting India''s territorial integrity.
• ii) Constitutional Validity: The Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutionality of AFSPA in the landmark Naga People’s Movement of Human Rights vs Union of India (1997) case. 
• The court laid down guidelines to prevent abuse, such as:
• Consultation with state governments before declaring an area as “disturbed”.
• Periodic review of the disturbed area status to ensure that AFSPA is applied only when absolutely necessary.
• iii) Effective Counter-Insurgency: AFSPA is viewed as crucial for combating insurgent groups, especially in conflict-prone areas like Kashmir and the northeastern states. The presence of well-armed militant organisations in these regions poses significant challenges to the state''s law and order apparatus. 
• AFSPA allows for the deployment of military forces in support of civilian authorities in such volatile situations.
• iv) National Security Imperative: AFSPA ensures a coordinated and comprehensive response to terrorism and insurgency, which individual states might lack the capacity to handle independently.  The law gives the armed forces the authority to neutralise threats before they escalate into larger conflicts, thereby maintaining internal security.
• v) Measures to Curb Misuse: Legal safeguards have been introduced to prevent the misuse of AFSPA. In the Extra Judicial Execution Victim Families vs Union of India (2016) case, the Supreme Court clarified that AFSPA does not grant invincible immunity to armed forces personnel. Soldiers involved in illegal actions can be prosecuted, providing a balance between national security and accountability.

The decades old dispute over who controls Mahabodhi temple in Gaya

• Over the past two months, large-scale demonstrations have erupted across India demanding that the control over the Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, be handed over to Buddhists.
• These protests are the latest chapter in a decades-old dispute over who controls one of the holiest sites in Buddhism. Buddhists want the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA), under which the temple is currently governed.

The temple in Bodh Gaya

• It is in Bodh Gaya, while meditating under the Bo tree, that Prince Siddhartha attained enlightenment to become the Buddha (literally, “the Enlightened One”) in 589 BCE.
• A simple shrine was constructed to mark the site by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, of which only the Vajrasana (Diamond Throne), a stone slab under the Bodhi tree next to the temple, remains. Additional structures were built during the Shunga period (2nd to 1st century BCE).
• Fifth-century Chinese traveller Faxian (also known as Fa Hien) wrote that there were three Buddhist monasteries around the temple in Gaya. But the current pyramidal structure can be dated to the reign of the Guptas in the 6th century CE.
• The Palas (8th-12th century CE) were the last major royal patrons of the Mahabodhi temple. By the 11th-12th centuries, Buddhism was gradually declining in the subcontinent, and so were its many centres, including in Gaya.

Lengthy struggle for control

• The shrine was in a state of disrepair when Alexander Cunningham, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India, began restoration in the 1880s. According to the website of UNESCO, which granted the Mahabodhi temple the World Heritage Site tag in 2002, the shrine was largely abandoned between the 13th and 19th centuries.
• But according to popular legend, which also finds mention in the shrine’s official website, a wandering Shaivite monk named Mahant Ghamandi Giri arrived in Gaya around 1590, and established what would become the Bodh Gaya Math, a Hindu monastery.
• Giri’s descendants continue to control the Mahabodhi temple, which they say is a Hindu site. “Our Math’s teachings treat Lord Buddha as the ninth reincarnation of Lord Vishnu and we consider Buddhists our brothers,” Swami Vivekananda Giri, the Hindu priest currently in charge of the Bodh Gaya Math, told Al Jazeera.
• Calls for the temple to be handed over to the Buddhists can be traced to the late 19th century. These were initially led by the Sri Lankan monk Anagarika Dhammapala, who even took the Hindu priests controlling the Mahabodhi temple to court.
• Dhammapala’s struggle culminated in the passage of the BGTA by the Bihar Assembly in 1949, 16 years after his death.

Why BGTA is controversial

• The BGTA provided for the creation of a Committee to run the Mahabodhi temple. “The Committee shall consist of a Chairman and eight members nominated by the [State] Government… of whom four shall be Buddhists and four shall be Hindus including the Mahanth,” the Act says.
• The Act says the District Magistrate of Gaya shall be the ex officio Chairman of the Committee, but adds that “the State Government shall nominate a Hindu as Chairman of the Committee for the period during which the district Magistrate of Gaya is non-Hindu”.
• So while the BGTA gave Buddhists a stake in the management of the shrine, control effectively remained with Hindus. This is at the heart of the tensions today, with the Buddhist side claiming that Hindu rituals have gained predominance in the temple over the years.
• “It is painful to see the Mahabodhi temple being made home to non-Buddhist rituals,” Dr Siddharth Dhende, former deputy mayor of Pune Municipal Corporation.
• Legally speaking, the Buddhists’ case is complicated by the Places of Worship Act, 1991. Introduced in the wake of the Ayodhya movement, the Act provides for the maintenance of the religious character of any place of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947.
• “The Places of Worship Act… blocked any legal attempts by the Buddhists to regain control of the temple,” said Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi youth leader Rajendra Patode. The Act is currently under challenge in the Supreme Court.
• In 2012, two monks filed a petition before the Supreme Court seeking a repeal of the BGTA, but 13 years on, the case is yet to be listed before the court.
• The ongoing protests were triggered when a group of Buddhist monks, who were fasting against “non-Buddhist” rituals in the temple, were forcibly removed from the temple premises.

 SpaceX Fram2 mission: Why this is first of its kind and what it achieves

•  SpaceX recently made history by launching the Fram2 mission, the first of its kind, from Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 7:16 AM on April 1 (IST). The mission, utilising a Falcon rocket and Crew Dragon capsule, transported four astronauts on a groundbreaking journey over Earth’s poles.
• This marks the first time a crewed spaceflight has taken such a route. Funded and commanded by cryptocurrency billionaire Chun Wang, the mission also includes vehicle commander Jannicke Mikkelsen fromscience Norway, pilot Rabea Rogge from Germany, and medical officer and mission specialist Eric Phillips from Australia. Mikkelsen, a filmmaker, is known for her work in extreme environments like the Arctic and open seas.
• Rogge is an engineer and scientist with expertise in robotics and polar research, while Phillips is a seasoned polar explorer who has led expeditions to both the North and South Poles.
• The crew is set to spend three to five days in orbit, conducting 22 scientific experiments focused on studying the polar regions from space, all while enjoying their time above Earth. They are expected to make a splashdown return to Earth.
• You might be wondering why this mission is the first human spaceflight over the poles. Here’s what you need to know:

1. Historical Orbital Patterns 

• Historically, most crewed missions have followed equatorial or low-inclination orbits. The closest approach to a polar orbit before Fram2 was the Soviet Vostok 6 mission in 1963, which reached a 65-degree inclination.

2. Technical Challenges of Polar Orbits 

• Polar orbits require more energy than equatorial ones, as the launch needs to counter the Earth''s rotational speed—about 1,670 km/h at the equator—which normally gives a boost to rockets heading east. Additionally, polar trajectories expose astronauts to higher levels of ionizing radiation because they pass through the Van Allen radiation belts and areas where the Earth''s magnetic field channels charged particles from solar and cosmic sources.

3. Lack of Scientific or Strategic Need in Earlier Missions  

• Historically, crewed missions have concentrated on significant objectives like reaching the Moon (with the Apollo program) or establishing a permanent presence in space (like the ISS), which favored equatorial or low-inclination orbits. During the Cold War, both the U.S. and Soviet Union were more focused on symbolic victories such as lunar landings, rather than on polar missions, which didn’t match their geopolitical agendas. Observing the poles was already possible with satellites, so sending humans there wasn’t seen as necessary.

4. SpaceX’s Unique Position  

• The Fram2 mission stands out as a privately funded initiative led by crypto entrepreneur Chun Wang, distinguishing it from government-backed missions. SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule, the only privately constructed spacecraft that regularly conducts orbital flights, makes ambitious missions like this one possible. Its advanced design, including a 2,000-square-inch dome window (the cupola), allows astronauts to visually document the polar regions. Coupled with the capabilities of SpaceX’s reusable Falcon 9 rocket, these missions have become more feasible and cost-effective. With a ticket costing around $55 million, private citizens like Wang can afford to participate.

5. Mission Design and Objectives  

• The Fram2 mission was specifically crafted to orbit the poles—an uncharted course for human missions. Named after the Norwegian ship Fram, famous for its exploration of the Arctic and Antarctic in the late 1800s, this mission aims to honor the spirit of polar exploration while carrying out 22 research experiments. These range from growing mushrooms in microgravity to studying the effects of spaceflight in a high-radiation environment on the human body. The crew''s passion for polar exploration drove the mission’s unique flight path, allowing them to not only conduct significant research but also to document and showcase Earth’s polar regions, which aren''t visible from the ISS or other crewed missions.
• Essential Facts:
• An orbit is the curved path that an object in space (like a star, planet, moon, asteroid or spacecraft) follows around another object due to gravity.
• An object in motion will stay in motion unless something pushes or pulls on it. This statement is called Newton’s first law of motion. Without gravity, an Earth-orbiting satellite would go off into space along a straight line. With gravity, it is pulled back toward Earth. A constant tug-of-war takes place between the satellite’s tendency to move in a straight line, or momentum, and the tug of gravity pulling the satellite back.
• The International Space Station is in low Earth orbit, or LEO. LEO is the first 100 to 200 miles of space. LEO is the easiest orbit to get to and stay in. One complete orbit in LEO takes about 90 minutes.
• Satellites that stay above a location on Earth are in geosynchronous Earth orbit, or GEO. These satellites orbit about 23,000 miles above the equator and complete one revolution around Earth precisely every 24 hours. Geosynchronous orbits are also called geostationary.
• Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, typically between 200 to 1000 km in altitude. Satellites in polar orbits usually travel around Earth from, roughly, one pole to the other, rather than from west to east. They do not need to pass exactly over the North and South Poles; a deviation of 10 degrees is still classed as a polar orbit.
• Polar orbits are particularly useful for global Earth coverage, as satellites orbiting ‘up’ and ‘down’ Earth’s surface can see every inch of the planet over time as it also rotates beloW.

How much land does Waqf Board control, how many movable, immovable estates registered under it? Explained

• The Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024 is all set  in Parliament on  with both the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Congress issuing whips to their MPs to ensure their presence in the House.
• The bill will be tabled after the Question Hour for consideration and passing, and following that, an 8-hour discussion will be held, which is also subject to an increase.
• In line with the BJP and Congress, their allies have also issued a whip to all their MPs to be present in the parliament on April 2 and 3.

 Kiren Rijiju to move Waqf Amendment Bill

• Union Parliamentary Affairs Minister Kiren Rijiju will move the Waqf Amendment Bill of 2025, which aims to amend the Waqf Act of 1995, for passing.
• After this, Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman will move that the amendments made by Rajya Sabha in the Banking Laws (Amendment) Bill of 2024, which further amends the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, the State Bank of India Act, 1955, the Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1970, and the Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1980, be taken into consideration.
• In the meantime, Union Ministers Jitendra Singh, L Murugan and Ravneet Singh will "lay papers on the table" for their respective ministries.

What is Waqf and what’s its meaning?

• In simple words, waqf is a charitable or religious donation, mostly made in the form of property by Muslims. These donations are made without valid documentation and then proceed from such donations are used to maintain mosques, graveyards and fund madrasas and orphanages.
• After a property is designated as waqf, it cannot be transferred or sold. Reports suggest that Waqf boards in the country control 8.72 lakh properties, amounting to over 9.4 lakh acres.
• How much land does Waqf Board control?
• According to government data, the Waqf boards control 8.7 lakh properties across 9.4 lakh acres in India, with an estimated value of Rs 1.2 lakh crores. Notably, India has the largest waqf holding in the world. It is more interesting to note that the Waqf Board is the largest landowner in India after the Armed Forces and the Indian Railways.

Here is the difference between ''Waqf'' and ''Waqf Board''

• ''Waqf'' is an Islamic legal concept, and it is an Arabic word, which refers to dedicating a property permanently for charitable, social, or family purposes. This property is generally donated for activities such as mosques, madrasas, cemeteries, orphanages, or helping the poor people.
• Once a property is dedicated as Waqf, it cannot be sold, transferred, or used for personal gain. The purpose of Waqf is to promote social welfare and religious activities. 
• The history of ''Waqf'' is linked to some Hadiths and the meaning in which Waqf is used today means donation of property in the name of Allah...donation of property for sacred religious purposes.
• The contemporary meaning of waqf came into existence during the time of Umar, the second Caliph of Islam. In a way, in today''s language, waqf is a type of charitable enrollment. Where a person donates property, land for religious and social welfare, without the intention of taking it back. The person who donates in this is very important.
• Donation can be made only of that which is ours, I cannot donate government property, I cannot donate someone else''s property.
• On the other hand, a ''Waqf Board'' is a government or semi-government body created to manage, preserve, and regulate Waqf properties. In India, for example, Waqf Boards operate at the state level, and they are formed under the ''Waqf Act''. These boards keep records of Waqf properties, monitor their use, and ensure that they are not misused.
• In short, Waqf refers to the property donated, and the Waqf Board is the authority that manages and enforces the rules related to that property.

No provision in Waqf Bill for appointment of non-Muslims 

• Amit Shah said that there is no provision in the bill for the appointment of non-Muslims in the processes related to the religion."Waqf Act and Board came into effect in 1995. All the arguments about the inclusion of non-Muslims inclusion are about interference in the Waqf.
• First of all, no non-Muslim would come into the Waqf. Understand this clearly...There is no such provision to include any non-Muslim among those who manage the religious institutions; we do not want to do this...This is a huge misconception that this Act will interfere with the religious conduct of Muslims and interfere with the property donated by them.
•  This misconception is being spread to instil fear among minorities for their vote bank," he said."Where will non-Muslim members be included? In Council and Waqf Board.
• What would they do? They won''t run any religious activity. They would only look after the administration of property donated by someone under Waqf Law, whether it is being done as per law, whether the property is being used for the intent with which it was donated," 

How many movable, immovable properties under Waqf Board?

• As per the government data, there are 8,72,328 immovable and 16,713 movable properties registered under Waqf Board. There are also 3,56, 051 Waqf Estates registered under Waqf Board.

 What issues Waqf Bill can address?

• The bill aims to amend the Waqf Act, 1995, to redress the issues and challenges in regulating and managing Waqf properties.
• The Amendment Bill seeks to improve the administration and management of waqf properties in India. It aims to overcome the shortcomings of the previous act and enhance the efficiency of Waqf boards by introducing changes such as renaming the Act, updating the definitions of waqf, improving the registration process, and increasing the role of technology in managing waqf records .
• The Waqf Act of 1995, enacted to regulate Waqf properties, has long been criticised for issues such as mismanagement, corruption, and encroachments.  

Krishi Nivesh to give a leg up to agriculture investments

• To expedite investments under various agri-sector schemes, the government will let investors to benefit from its unified digital platform Krishi Nivesh.
• The facility is being used by a host of ministries including agriculture, food processing, Jal Shakti, new and renewable energy and fertilizers.
• The platform by agriculture ministry currently provide information about 11 flagship agri-schemes including agriculture infrastructure fund, animal husbandry infrastructure development fund, PM Kisan Sampada Yojana, PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) of seven ministries at a single source.
• The government has allocated Rs 1.31 lakh crore for theses scheme as per revised estimate of FY25.
• The portal would integrate more central and state schemes linked to the agriculture sector. Sources said in FY22, private investment in the agriculture sector was Rs 2.79 lakh crore.
• “We will be soon adding information about the state level schemes for promotion for the agriculture sector along with establishing chat bots to individual investors for resolving their queries,” sources said. This would address problems like lack of acess to information on government schemes and their progress, siloed operations across departments and slow progress of loan disbursement.
• In addition, the digital platform would support investors through a module of detailed project reports and will eventually trace the approval process of investment proposals and progress in terms of implementation.
• It also helps investors in the application process while ensuring that potential investors take benefits of convergence of various schemes. “The aim of the portal would be to ensure that it supports investors in getting benefits of the various schemes of the centre as well as state government under convergence models,” according to a source.
• At present information about several mega schemes related to agriculture sectors are implemented by various ministries such as animal husbandry, rural development, agriculture and food processing are available with their respective ministries which makes it difficult for investors such as farmers producer organisations, entrepreneurs, and industries to navigate.
• The portal would access the slow process of loan disbursal under various schemes while categorizing investments opportunities based on geographical spread aimed at unlocking investment potential in the secto.
• Meanwhile the agriculture ministry on Tuesday stated in the parliament that investments in agriculture are aimed at infrastructure development in irrigation systems, use of advanced machinery, high-yielding seeds, pesticides including insecticides, herbicides, nematicides and creating scientific storage facilities to minimize post-harvest losses and processing facilities for value addition.
• While launching the platform last year, agriculture minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan had stated that the portal should address longstanding challenges in the agriculture sector, such as fragmented information, siloed operations across departments, and slow progress in loan disbursement and scheme applications.
• The digital platform would bridge the information gap and facilitate seamless coordination between various departments, for boosting agri-investments.