India becomes fourth nation to achieve space docking with indigenous system:

The successful deployment of the SPADEX satellites into a 475 km circular orbit was a momentous achievement for ISRO, marking India’s foray into mastering space docking technologies.

• India’s space program took another giant leap forward with the successful launch of the PSLV-C60 vehicle, which successfully deployed the Space Docking Experiment (SPADEX) satellites into orbit.
• This achievement not only underscores ISRO’s growing capabilities in mastering complex space technologies but also highlights the significant role of private industries in propelling India’s space ambitions.
• ON December 31, 2024, ISRO’s PSLV-C60 rocket successfully lifted off, carrying two identical SPADEX satellites—SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target)—into low Earth orbit. The satellites, each weighing 220 kg, are designed to demonstrate crucial space technologies like autonomous rendezvous and docking, which are vital for future manned missions, satellite servicing, and interplanetary exploration
• The successful deployment of the SPADEX satellites into a 475 km circular orbit was a momentous achievement for ISRO, marking India’s foray into mastering space docking technologies. “This mission is a crucial step towards enhancing India’s capabilities for deep space missions, satellite servicing, and the future establishment of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS),” said ISRO Chairman S. Somanath. “With this, we join the ranks of the U.S., Russia, and China in mastering orbital docking—a technology central to the future of space exploration.”
• The SPADEX mission’s objectives extend far beyond basic satellite deployment. The two satellites are intended to rendezvous and dock with each other in space, demonstrating the ability to conduct in-orbit operations like spacecraft refuelling, maintenance, and modular assembly. These capabilities are essential for future missions, including those to the Moon and Mars, and for ISRO’s human spaceflight ambitions.

Private Industry: A Critical Partner in ISRO’s Success

• While ISRO’s technical expertise and mission design were at the core of the PSLV-C60’s success, private sector companies like Ananth Technologies Pvt. Ltd. (ATL) played an essential role in the mission’s realization. ATL, an aerospace innovation leader, was instrumental in providing critical components for both the SPADEX satellites and the PSLV-C60 launch vehicle.
• The company supplied vital subsystems such as the Rendezvous Processing Units (RPU) and DC-DC converters for the SPADEX satellites, alongside 29 key subsystems for the PSLV-C60 launch vehicle, including power modules, transmitters, and NAVIC processors.

Empowering Startups and Research Institutions

• The PSLV-C60 mission also showcased a groundbreaking collaboration between ISRO, private startups, and academic institutions. In a significant move to boost India’s space innovation ecosystem, IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Center) facilitated the deployment of 10 payloads from non-government entities (NGEs) aboard the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM-4). This initiative allows startups, research institutions, and universities to conduct in-orbit experiments using existing space infrastructure, thus reducing the barriers to entry for smaller players in the space sector.
• Dr Pawan Goenka, Chairman of IN-SPACe, emphasized the importance of these collaborations: “The POEM-4 mission provides a unique platform for Indian startups and academic institutions to test their technologies in space.
• This reduces the cost of space experimentation and opens up a wider range of opportunities for the private sector to contribute to India’s space future.”
• Startups like Bellatrix Aerospace, GalaxEye Space Solutions, and Manastu Space Technologies had their payloads deployed in this mission, covering a wide range of experiments—from testing green propulsion systems to studying the effects of microgravity on biological systems.
• These payloads reflect the diverse range of innovations coming from India’s private sector, which is now being given the opportunity to test and refine their technologies in space.
• The success of POEM-4, which repurposes the fourth stage of the PSLV rocket into an experimental platform, also highlights ISRO’s role in fostering innovation within the private and academic sectors. By providing this unique platform, ISRO is enabling Indian entities to develop, test, and validate their space technologies without the prohibitive costs of launching entire satellites.

The Bigger Picture: Space Docking and Future Missions

• The PSLV-C60 mission is a significant step towards ISRO’s goal of mastering space docking—a technology that will be critical for future missions, including human spaceflight and deep-space exploration.
• The successful deployment of SPADEX satellites into orbit is a precursor to more complex docking systems and in-orbit operations, such as satellite refuelling and the assembly of interplanetary spacecraft.
• As ISRO prepares for its next ambitious goals, including the Chandrayaan-4 mission to return samples from the Moon and the construction of BAS by 2035, mastering space docking technologies will be crucial. “Docking technology is not just important for servicing satellites, but also for building and maintaining space stations, which are central to our long-term space exploration objectives,” said N Surendran, Project Director of SPADEX.
• With both public and private sectors working in tandem, India’s space exploration prospects are brighter than ever. The PSLV-C60 mission, with its successful deployment of the SPADEX satellites and the integration of private industry and academic institutions, demonstrates the strength of this collaboration and lays a strong foundation for future space missions.

A Step Towards Self-Reliance in Space

• The PSLV-C60 mission represents a major milestone not only in ISRO’s quest for space docking capabilities but also in the evolution of India’s space ecosystem, where the private sector plays a pivotal role in expanding the country’s space capabilities. Through strategic collaborations, innovative platforms like POEM-4, and the continued advancement of technologies like space docking, India is solidifying its position as a global leader in space exploration.

Why are PFAS a big concern?

• PFAS do not break down readily when they get into the environment. They move around in our waters and in the atmosphere and sometimes stick to soils. But they also desorb [get released after being absorbed] from soils. This way, PFAS travel around the world.
• PFAS were recently listed under Stockholm Convention that aims to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants that remain intact in the environment for long periods.
• Countries that have signed the Stockholm Convention would not make PFAS, like perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid. We are also seeing PFAS levels in our blood decline, which is good. The concern is if we are making other types of PFAS that are not regulated yet.
• Manufacturers slightly modify the molecule. These are not regulated. And there is the issue of potential accumulation of other PFAS molecules that we probably do not know about, or which conceptually could exist, but may not have been studied for their transport, fate in the environment or toxicity.
•  some pharmaceuticals use PFAS with limited fluorine atoms in them. They would use it for beneficial purposes in the body. So, certainly, a limited number of PFAS can have an impact, but the ones that are regulated are more fluorinated (they have more fluorine atoms). And we do not know the toxicity of the different ranges of PFAS.
•  Only a limited number have been studied so far.

India and Mauritius recently held a joint coordination meeting

• India and Mauritius recently held a joint coordination meeting onboard INS Sarvekshak to commence the Joint Hydrographic Survey aimed at enhancing navigational safety in Mauritian waters.

INS Sarvekshak:

• It is an Indian Navy hydrographic survey ship, based at Southern Naval Command in Kochi.
• It is fitted with state-of-the-art survey equipment like Deep Sea Multibeam Echo Sounder, Side Scan Sonars and a fully automated digital surveying and processing system.
• In addition, the ship carries an integral Chetak helicopter, which would be extensively deployed during the survey.
• The ship is the second ship of the Darshak class of ships and has a complement of 15 officers and 175 sailors.
• In the past, INS Sarvekshak has also undertaken foreign cooperation surveys in Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Seychelles, Tanzania, and Kenya.

What is Hydrography?

• It is the branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes, and rivers, as well as with the prediction of their change over time.
• This is done mainly with specialised ships and boats operating echo sounders and sonars, but also using survey aircraft fitted with lasers.
• Useful information can also be derived sometimes from satellite observations.
• It also involves measuring the tide and the currents.

Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES).

•  India’s average household consumption spending on a per capita basis rose about 3.5% in real terms through August 2023 to July 2024 from a year ago, as per the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES).

Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES):

• It is designed to collect information on consumption and expenditure of the households on goods and services.
• It provides data required to assess trends in economic well-being and to determine and update the basket of consumer goods and services and weights used for the calculation of the Consumer Price Index.
• Data collected in HCES is also used to measure poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
• The Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) compiled from HCES is the primary indicator used for most analytical purposes.
• As in HCES 2022-23, in HCES 2023-24 also, two sets of estimates of MPCE have been generated:
• Without considering imputed values of items received free of cost by the households through various social welfare programmes, and
• Considering imputed values of items received free of cost by the households through various social welfare programmes.
• This survey is conducted by National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) under the Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI).

Important Findings of HCES 2023-24:

• In nominal prices, the average MPCE (without imputation) in 2023-24 increases by about 9% in rural areas and 8% in urban areas from the level of 2022-23.
• The urban-rural gap in MPCE has declined to 71% in 2022-23 from 84% in 2011-12. It has further come down to 70% in 2023-24 that confirms sustained momentum of consumption growth in rural areas.
• When ranked by MPCE, the increase in the average MPCE in 2023-24 from the level of 2022-23 has been the maximum for the bottom 5 to 10 % of India’s population, for both rural and urban areas.
• Consistent with the trend observed in HCES:2022-23, non-food items remain the major contributor to the household’s average monthly expenditure in 2023-24
• Beverages, refreshments and processed food continue to have the major expenditure share in 2023-24 in the food items basket of the rural and urban households.
• Conveyance, clothing, bedding & footwear, miscellaneous goods & entertainment and durable goods have a major expenditure share in non-food expenditure of the households in both rural and urban areas.
• Consumption inequality, both in rural and urban areas, has declined from the level of 2022-23. The Gini coefficient has declined to 0.237 in 2023-24 from 0.266 in 2022-23 for rural areas and to 0.284 in 2023-24 from 0.314 in 2022-23 for urban areas

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has unearthed a remarkable cache of ancient artifacts in Srisailam Temple

•  Srisailam Temple, also known as Sri Bhramaramba Mallikarjuna Temple, stands as one of India’s most revered shrines, dedicated to Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati.
• It is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas and 18 Shakti Peethas, making it a significant pilgrimage destination for devotees across India.
• The temple is situated on the Nallamala Hills in Andhra Pradesh, surrounded by dense forests and rocky terrain. Its elevated location offers stunning views, creating a serene ambiance for pilgrims and visitors.
• The nearby Krishna River, which flows through the region, adds to the temple’s scenic beauty and religious significance. Devotees often take a holy dip in its waters before offering prayers, believing it purifies their body and soul.

 Architecture:

• Historical records trace its establishment to ancient times, with references in sacred texts like the Mahabharata and the Skanda Purana.
• Dynasties such as the Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, and Vijayanagara kings patronised the temple, contributing to its architectural grandeur.
• The temple''s architecture reflects a mix of Chalukyan and Vijayanagara styles, adorned with intricate carvings that narrate mythological tales.
• The sanctum sanctorum houses the Mallikarjuna Swamy Lingam and the idol of Goddess Bhramaramba.
• Devotees believe the temple’s spiritual aura is amplified by its age-old traditions and rituals, which continue to be practiced with devotion.

Cultural and Religious significance:

• The temple is a hub of cultural and religious activities, attracting millions of pilgrims, especially during festivals like Maha Shivaratri and Navaratri.
• Its rich traditions include the performance of daily rituals, Vedic chants, and cultural programs that celebrate its heritage. Pilgrims believe visiting Srisailam fulfils spiritual aspirations and grants divine blessings, making it a sacred pilgrimage for Hindus.
• Srisailam is also referred to as Sri Parvata and Kailasa of the South, highlighting its spiritual prominence. The nearby Akka Mahadevi Caves and Pathala Ganga are popular spots for exploration and devotion, adding to the holistic experience of the pilgrimage.

India’s struggle with AMCA as China soars ahead with sixth-generation fighter

• Even as India continues to work on its fifth-generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), China has made headlines with the flight of its sixth-generation fighter jet.
• This stark contrast in development timelines has raised serious concerns about India’s position in the global defence race. There are images on the X (formerly Twitter) depicting the Chinese sixth generation fighter jet flying.
• While India remains involved in the process of developing its AMCA, China has already moved ahead with a sixth-generation fighter, proving that India is lagging behind in the race for air superiority.
•  In November 2024, China unveiled its sixth-generation fighter, the AVIC Baidi Type-B, at the Zhuhai Airshow, with footage soon emerging of the fighter in flight.
• This aircraft is being touted as a significant leap forward, with features such as a tailless design and diamond-shaped wings, resembling some renderings from the US and Western models.
• Though many of the fighter’s capabilities are still under wraps, speculation points to its enhanced stealth features and potential for operations in space, though the latter remains sceptical.
• China’s rapid progress underscores the country’s growing technological prowess in defence. The Baidi Type-B is just the latest in a string of advancements, following the 2011 debut and 2017 induction of its fifth-generation Chengdu J-20 Mighty Dragon.
• In comparison, the United States’ F-22 Raptor, the world’s first fifth-generation fighter, took over a decade to reach full operational status.
•  While China’s stealth capabilities, particularly with the J-20, have drawn some criticism, the leap to the sixth-generation fighter is a clear indication that the country is committed to staying ahead of the curve.

What does "generation" mean?

• The term "aircraft generation" appeared in the 1990s and refers primarily to fighters. Each generation represents a significant leap in fighter technology.
• There is no strict definition of what constitutes a generation, and these generations serve as a general guide for comparing aircraft technology, not as an exact measure of their capabilities.
• Generational shifts typically occur when new technological innovations are too significant to be integrated into existing designs through upgrades.
• There are currently five generations of fighters that are (or have been) in active service, with a sixth generation currently in development.
• First generation (1943 to 1955)
• The first generation of fighters appeared during the last years of World War II.
• Early jet fighters, faster than piston engine fighters but still subsonic.
• Basic avionics, no self-defense systems, and armed with machine guns or cannons.
• These aircraft were deployed as interceptors and could engage in close-range combat.
• Examples: Messerschmitt Me 262, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15.
• Second generation (1955-1970)
• The introduction of afterburners and swept wings enabled second-generation aircraft to reach transonic and supersonic speeds in level flight.
• Fire control radars were introduced, along with the first semi-active radar-guided missiles.
• Radar warning receivers were added, opening the way for countermeasures.
• Examples: MiG-21, Lockheed F-104 Starfighter.
• Third generation (1960s to 1970s)
• Integrated designs, multi-role capabilities (fighter-bombers and interceptors), visual range warfare, pulse Doppler radar, and electronic warfare systems.
• The aircraft featured more powerful turbofan engines for superior range, maneuverability and sustained supersonic flight.
• Examples: McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom, MiG-23, Hawker Siddeley Harrier.
• Fourth generation (1970-2000)
• Fly-by-Wire (FBW) technology: The introduction of FBW systems allowed for better maneuverability and more stable flight at high speeds using computers to mediate pilot input and aircraft control surfaces.
• Introduction of advanced avionics, including head-up displays (HUDs) and improved electronic warfare systems.
• Stealth (ability to be invisible to radar systems): Composite construction materials, radar absorbing paints, etc.

Examples: F-16 Fighting Falcon, Sukhoi Su-30, Dassault Rafale.

• Fifth generation (2000–present)
• Fifth-generation fighter jets are the most advanced aircraft in service today. They feature stealth technology, integrated systems that give pilots a full view of the battlefield, and networked communications that allow them to act as a coordinated team.
• Advanced computer systems help automate many functions, reducing pilot workload and increasing operational efficiency.
• Introduced in 2005, the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor was the first of its kind. It remains unrivaled in stealth and long-range combat, with a radar signature as small as a bird and advanced systems to detect and kill enemies before they are detected.
• Currently, only the USA (F-22, F-35), Russia (Sukhoi Su-57) and China (Chengdu J-20) operate fifth-generation fighters.
• India is developing its own but is still a long way from creating a prototype.
• Sixth generation (under development)
• Speculated Features: May include optionally manned or unmanned capabilities, hypersonic speeds, advanced AI, directed energy weapons (eg lasers) and possibly suborbital flight.
• Potential examples: Tempest (UK, Italy, Japan), FCAS (Future Combat Air System) (France, Germany, Spain)

India’s AMCA Development Plan:

• The program, led by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) in collaboration with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), has been beset by delays.
• The AMCA has been seen as India’s solution to its aging fleet and to counter increasingly advanced adversaries like China.
• However, progress has been slow, and technical challenges, particularly with the engine, remain a major hurdle.
• AMCA is expected to use the GE-414 engine, which will be shared with the Tejas Mk2 fighter, but the final engine choice for the production version could be different, further complicating timelines.
• Moreover, India’s defence budget has struggled to meet the demand for cutting-edge technology, as the country is still heavily reliant on older platforms like the Su-30MKI and MiG-29, while simultaneously trying to acquire newer platforms like the French Rafale.
• The lack of a steady and reliable fighter production pipeline has left India vulnerable to delays in key defence programs.

The Growing Gap: India’s Strategic Vulnerability

• As China progresses with its sixth-generation fighter program, India finds itself in a precarious position.
• While the AMCA is still in the prototype stage and unlikely to see induction until the next decade, China is already preparing to deploy a fighter jet that promises to be far more advanced, equipped with technologies that will likely surpass anything in India’s current arsenal.
• This situation highlights a significant strategic vulnerability. India, which shares a tense border with China, needs to address this growing gap in military capabilities urgently. The future of air combat is already taking shape, with nations like China and the United States looking toward sixth-generation fighters that will redefine the nature of aerial warfare. By the time the AMCA enters service, it may already be outdated in comparison to the capabilities of China’s sixth-gen fighter, leaving India at a severe disadvantage in the event of conflict.

The Need for Accelerated Development

• The long timelines and technical delays of the AMCA program, while understandable given the scale of such an ambitious project, cannot be ignored. “India cannot afford to wait for decades to catch up with China, especially when the regional security environment is becoming increasingly volatile.
• According to the officer who wished to remain anonymous, “One solution could be to speed up the AMCA’s development, possibly by outsourcing some of the technology or by partnering with foreign nations that already possess the necessary expertise in building advanced fighter jets.
• Collaborations with countries like the United States, Russia, or even European nations could provide valuable access to technology that would significantly shorten development timelines. India must also consider the possibility of bolstering its fleet with additional Rafales or other modern platforms to bridge the gap until the AMCA becomes operational.”
• Moreover, “the Indian Air Force (IAF) could look into acquiring other advanced systems, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones, to complement its manned fighter fleet and provide a more balanced defence capability in the future. The integration of such systems into India’s air force could provide a competitive edge, even in the absence of sixth-generation fighter.

After Ramayan Vatika, Uttarakhand develops garden based on Mahabharata

•  Uttarakhand Forest Department established two ethnobotanical gardens in Haldwani. These gardens, named Ramayana Vatika and Mahabharata Vatika, highlight the ecological knowledge embedded in ancient Indian epics.
• They feature plant species mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, showcasing the relationship between culture, religion, and environmental conservation
• The state forest department also set up “Ramayana Vatika” in Haldwani with plant species mentioned in Valmiki’s Ramayana and associated with Lord Rama in six major forest types.
• Of around 139 species mentioned, around 70 have been grown in “Ramayan Vatika”. Chaturvedi said Lord Ram came across four types of forests—Chitrakoot (tropical deciduous), Dandakarnanya (tropical deciduous ), Panchavati (tropical dry deciduous ), and Kishkindha (dry and moist deciduous)—during his journey from Ayodhya to Sri Lanka. “Ashok Vatika [evergreen] is associated with Sita while Dronagiri [alpine forest] is associated with Lord Hanuman.

Mahabharata Vatika

• The Mahabharata Vatika spans one acre and includes 37 plant species referenced in the epic. Chief Conservator of Forests Sanjeev Chaturvedi emphasised the garden’s research foundation.
• The species include Khair, Kovidar, and Peepal, among others. The garden illustrates ecological wisdom found in the Mahabharata, especially in the Vana Parva, which discusses the significance of forests.
• The epic contains hymns about the importance of planting trees and conserving wildlife. It conveys the interdependence of tigers and forests, a concept vital for contemporary conservation efforts. Chaturvedi noted that without forests, tigers cannot survive, and without tigers, forests face destruction. This relationship puts stress on the need for sustainable practices.
• The Mahabharata teaches that planting trees uplifts both ancestors and descendants. This belief connects generations, denoting the spiritual value of trees.
• The Shami tree, for instance, is culturally , associated with the Pandavas during their exile. Its mention reflects the importance of nature in human history
• The Ramayana Vatika features around 70 out of 139 species mentioned in Valmiki’s Ramayana. The garden represents various forest types encountered by Lord Rama during his journey.
• Key species include those found in Chitrakoot and Dandakaranya. This garden serves as a testament to the rich biodiversity described in the Ramayana.
• Both gardens aim to bridge the gap between ancient texts and modern ecological practices. They highlight the relevance of historical wisdom in addressing current environmental challenges. By showcasing these plant species, the gardens promote awareness about biodiversity and conservation.
• These gardens serve as educational tools for the community. They provide vital information about the historical relationship between humans and nature. Visitors can learn about the ecological roles of various plants and their significance in ancient texts. This knowledge encourages a deeper appreciation for biodiversity.
• The establishment of these gardens marks a progressive step in integrating cultural heritage with environmental conservation. They encourage ongoing research and awareness about the importance of preserving plant species mentioned in ancient literature. This initiative could inspire similar projects across India.

Centre not to release the Good Governance Index 2023

• The central government has decided not to release the Good Governance Index 2023 (GGI) for this year, instead publish the next edition in 2025, according to a report by The Indian Express.
• This index provides a biennial ranking of states and Union territories (UT) was scheduled to publish drawing the Good Governance Week (December 19- December 2025). 

What is the Good Governance Index?

• Launched in December 2019 to mark the birth anniversary of former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the Good Governance Index (GGI) is released on Good Governance Day (December 25). The index evaluates over 50 indicators across sectors like agriculture, public health, economic governance, and citizen-focused services. Tamil Nadu topped the rankings for big states in 2019, while Gujarat secured the top spot in 2021.
• In the past editions, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat emerged as leaders among big states. Tamil Nadu ranked first in 2019, while Gujarat topped the list in 2021. The GGI 2021 included 58 indicators across ten sectors. Notably, 20 states showed improvement in their composite scores compared to the 2019 rankings.
• As of December 2023, the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) had planned to release the 2023 index. The announcement was made alongside a national campaign for public grievance redressal. However, the government later decided to halt the release of the GGI 2023, stating that the data would be outdated by the time of publication.
• The main reason for the postponement is the concern over outdated data. The GGI is intended to provide a current snapshot of governance across states. Delaying the release allows for the collection of new data, ensuring the index remains relevant.
• The GGI will be reassessed, and new data will be collected for the next edition. The next GGI is now scheduled for December 2025. Meanwhile, DARPG has published District Good Governance Indices for several states, including Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, during the 2021-2024 period.
• The delay in releasing the GGI 2023 may affect the assessment of governance practices in India. Stakeholders, including policymakers and citizens, rely on this index to understand governance trends and performance. The availability of up-to-date data is crucial for informed decision-making.
• The GGI serves as an important tool for evaluating governance in India. It promotes accountability and encourages states to improve their governance practices. The index also encourages competition among states to enhance their performance in various sectors.

Scientists are building underwater neutrino telescopes in the Mediterranean

• The telescopes are designed to detect not light, but neutrinos. These subatomic particles are spewed at high energies from mysterious, unidentified realms of space.
• But such high-energy neutrinos are so rare, and so stealthy, that the detectors that study them must be enormous.
• So scientists are outfitting a cubic kilometer of the Mediterranean with light-collecting devices designed to snag them.
• This Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope, or KM3NeT, consists of two telescopes made up of glass baubles arranged on vertical cables.
• Each strand dangles in the water like a pearl necklace that’s up to 700 meters long. Each bauble, a pressure-resistant sphere 44 centimeters wide, contains 31 photomultiplier tubes that sense light generated when neutrinos crash into the seawater.
• Neutrinos are fundamental particles similar to electrons but lack electric charge. They were first detected in 1959, although their existence was theorised in 1931.
• Neutrinos are the second most abundant subatomic particles, following photons. A staggering number of neutrinos, approximately one billion, pass through every cubic centimetre of space each second.
• Scientists focus on high-energy neutrinos because they originate from rare and extreme cosmic events. These include supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, and colliding stars. High-energy neutrinos can penetrate dense cosmic dust, which obscures visible light from celestial objects.
• This capability allows researchers to study regions like the Milky Way’s centre, where traditional optical telescopes struggle to observe
• Detecting high-energy neutrinos poses challenges.
• Neutrinos interact very weakly with matter. Consequently, only a few neutrinos will interact with a person over a lifetime.
•  The IceCube Observatory has detected only a handful of these elusive particles since its inception in 2011. A large volume of optically transparent material is required for effective detection.
• Underwater neutrino telescopes offer unique advantages. They provide a dark environment necessary for observing Cherenkov radiation, which is the light produced when neutrinos interact with water molecules.
• This light helps scientists trace the neutrino’s path and gather vital information about its source and energy.
• Water scatters light less than ice, potentially leading to more accurate measurements of neutrinos’ origins. However, water absorbs light more than ice, creating a trade-off in detection efficiency.
• Studying high-energy neutrinos may unlock secrets about cosmic rays and dark matter. Researchers believe that understanding these particles could reveal phenomena currently beyond human imagination. The ongoing research into neutrinos could enhance our comprehension of the universe.

Indian MoD signs two contracts worth $335 million to upgrade Kalvari-class submarines with AIP and electronic HWT capabilities

• The Ministry of Defence has signed two contracts, worth approx. Rs 2,867 crore, for the construction of Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) Plug for DRDO-AIP system & its integration onboard Indian Submarines, and the integration of Electronic Heavy Weight Torpedo (EHWT) onboard the Kalvari-Class submarines. Both the contracts were signed in the presence of Defence Secretary Shri Rajesh Kumar Singh in New Delhi on December 30, 2024.
• The AIP technology is being indigenously developed by DRDO. The project pertaining to construction of AIP-Plug and its integration will enhance the endurance of conventional submarines and significantly contribute towards the ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ initiative. It would generate employment of nearly three lakh man days.
• The integration of EHWT will be a collaborative effort by Indian Navy, DRDO and Naval Group, France. It would greatly augment the firepower capabilities of Kalvari Class submarines of the Indian Navy.
• The AIP Modules constitute the core of the fuel cell-based AIP System, indigenously developed by the Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL) of DRDO with L&T as the prime industry partner, an association spanning more than a decade.
• The Energy Modules (EMs) comprising Fuel Cells produce the required power, along with onboard Hydrogen generation. 
•  The technology of this indigenous AIP system is a unique one that generates hydrogen on demand thereby obviating the need for carrying hydrogen onboard which is a major safety concern for a submarine.

Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) Technology

• Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) technology allows submarines to operate without surfacing for extended periods. This capability enhances stealth and operational readiness. The recent contract for AIP Plug construction will be executed by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) in Mumbai. The investment of Rs 1,990 crore will facilitate the development of this crucial technology, marking a step towards indigenisation.

Integration of Electronic Heavy Weight Torpedo (EHWT)

• The second contract involves the integration of Electronic Heavy Weight Torpedo (EHWT) onto Kalvari-Class submarines. This project is a collaborative effort involving the Indian Navy, Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), and Naval Group from France. The contract is valued at approximately Rs 877 crore. The EHWT will enhance the firepower and effectiveness of India’s submarine fleet.
• The construction and integration projects are expected to generate considerable employment. It is estimated that nearly three lakh man-days will be created through these initiatives. This not only supports local economies but also encourages skill development in advanced manufacturing and defence technologies.

Telangana targets GI tag status for 10 new products in 2025

• Telangana is gearing up for a significant expansion in its Geographical Indication (GI) portfolio, with plans to file for GI status for ten new products in 2025. The initiative aims to highlight the State’s rich agricultural and handicraft heritage.
• Currently, Telangana boasts 17 GI-registered products and the new filings are expected to raise this number to 27 by the end of next year.
• Among the six new handicraft and cultural products identified for GI filings are Hyderabad’s pearls, Armoor turmeric from Nizamabad, Narayanpet’s jewellery-making craft, Batik painting from Medak, Banjara needlecraft from Nalgonda and Banjara tribal jewellery.
•  In parallel, the Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State Horticultural University (SKLTSHU) is working on securing GI recognition for four agricultural products. These include Balanagar custard apple, Nalgonda Dosakaya (an Oriental Pickling Melon), Anab-e-Shahi grapes and Khammam chilli.
• Geographical Indication is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin. It indicates that the product possesses qualities or a reputation due to that origin. GI status helps protect traditional knowledge and promotes local goods. It ensures that only products originating from a specific place can use the name associated with that area.

GI- Products in Telangana

• Telangana currently boasts 17 GI-registered products. These include various handicrafts and agricultural products. Notable examples are Pochampally Ikat textiles, Hyderabad Lac Bangles, and Warangal Chilli. Each product reflects the unique cultural heritage of the region.

New Products for GI Filing

• The state has identified six new handicraft and cultural products for GI filings. These include: – Hyderabad’s pearls – Armoor turmeric from Nizamabad – Narayanpet’s jewellery-making craft – Batik painting from Medak – Banjara needlecraft from Nalgonda – Banjara tribal jewellery Additionally, four agricultural products are under consideration. These are: – Balanagar custard apple – Nalgonda Dosakaya (an Oriental Pickling Melon) – Anab-e-Shahi grapes – Khammam chilli
• The Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State Horticultural University (SKLTSHU) plays important role in securing GI recognition for agricultural products. The university collaborates with local farmers and artisans to promote traditional practices and enhance product quality.
• The expansion of GI registrations is vital for Telangana. It helps preserve the state’s cultural heritage and boosts local economies. GI status can enhance marketability and attract tourism.
•  It also empowers local communities by recognising their craftsmanship and agricultural practices.
• To qualify for GI status, a product must meet six essential criteria: 1. It must originate from a specific geographic location. 2. There must be a strong link between the product and its area of origin. 3. The product should have a local, national, or global reputation. 4. Historical evidence of the product’s existence is necessary. 5. The product must be unique compared to similar items. 6. It should be produced by a specific community.
• Subhajit Saha, a notable GI practitioner, has been instrumental in Telangana’s GI recognition journey. He has facilitated 27 of the 36 GI registrations from Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. His expertise has helped highlight the importance of protecting traditional products.

Govt approves extension of Di-Ammonium Phosphate package beyond NBS subsidy

• In its first meeting of 2025, Union Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, has approved the extension of the One-Time Special Package for Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer. This decision ensures the availability of DAP at affordable prices for farmers across the country.
• The extension is effective from January 1, 2025, and will continue until further notice. This package provides an additional subsidy of Rs 3,500 per metric ton (MT) beyond the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme.
• Twenty eight grades of P&K fertilizers are made available to farmers at subsidized prices through fertilizer manufacturers/importers. The subsidy on P&K fertilizers is governed by NBS Scheme w.e.f April 1, 2010.
• Continuing top most priority in keeping farmers’ welfare in firm focus, the Union Government has extended a massive relief to farmers in keeping the price of Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer unchanged.
• Inspite of geo-political constraints and volatility of global market conditions, Government kept its commitment towards farmer friendly approach by ensuring availability of DAP to farmers at affordable prices for Kharif and Rabi 2024-25.
• Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) is a widely used chemical fertilizer essential for enhancing soil fertility and boosting crop yields. India relies heavily on imports to meet its DAP requirements, sourcing significant quantities from countries like China, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia. Rising raw material prices in international markets often result in increased costs. To mitigate this impact, the government provides subsidies to ensure fertilizers remain affordable for farmers, safeguarding agricultural productivity.
• The move highlights government’s efforts to stabilize fertilizer prices amidst fluctuating global market conditions and geopolitical challenges. Farmers will have consistent access to subsidized DAP, enhancing agricultural productivity during Kharif and Rabi seasons.
• The NBS scheme, introduced on April 1, 2010, governs the pricing of 28 grades of phosphatic and potassic (P&K) fertilizers. However, the special package for DAP is an added measure to ensure cost-effective fertilizer availability.
• This extension follows a prior decision by the Cabinet in July 2024, where a one-time special package for DAP was approved for the period from April 1, 2024, to December 31, 2024. The financial implication of that package was approximately Rs 2,625 crore

India, Pakistan exchange list of nuclear facilities as part of 1988 pact

•  India and Pakistan on Wednesday shared a list of their nuclear installations under a bilateral agreement that obstructs both sides from attacking each other''s atomic facilities.
• The exchange occurred under the agreement on the Prohibition of Attack against Nuclear Installations and Facilities, signed on December 31, 1988, and entered into force on January 27, 1991.
• The pact requires both sides to inform each other of the atomic facilities on January 1 every year.
• India and Pakistan today exchanged, through diplomatic channels, simultaneously at New Delhi and Islamabad, the list of nuclear installations and facilities covered under the agreement on the prohibition of attack against nuclear installations and facilities,"
• The agreement was signed in December 1988. It aims to prevent nuclear attacks on each other’s facilities. The first exchange of nuclear installation details occurred in 1992. This treaty has endured despite ongoing tensions, particularly regarding Kashmir and terrorism.
• The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) of India confirmed the exchange. Additionally, both nations shared lists of civilian prisoners and fishermen held in custody.
• India provided details of 381 civilian prisoners and 81 fishermen believed to be Pakistani. Pakistan, in turn, shared information about 49 civilian prisoners and 217 fishermen thought to be Indian.
• This exchange reflects ongoing humanitarian concerns amidst political tensions.
• The MEA brought into light the need for India to expedite the release of 183 Indian fishermen and civilian prisoners who have completed their sentences.
• It also called for immediate consular access for 18 Indian nationals believed to be in Pakistani custody. Since 2014, India has repatriated 639 fishermen and 71 civilian prisoners from Pakistan.
• This agreement plays important role in maintaining a level of stability between India and Pakistan.
• It serves as a confidence-building measure. Regular exchanges help prevent misunderstandings that could escalate into conflict. The agreement reflects a mutual recognition of the need for responsible nuclear stewardship.
• Despite the agreement, relations between India and Pakistan remain fraught. Issues such as the Kashmir conflict and cross-border terrorism continue to strain diplomatic ties. The nuclear exchange agreement has not resolved these deeper issues but provides a framework for communication.
• The continuation of this agreement is vital for regional security. It puts stress on the importance of dialogue in managing nuclear risks. Both countries must navigate their complex relationship while adhering to the principles of the agreement. The future of this treaty will depend on broader diplomatic engagements.