Right to Vote in India: Legal Status and Constitutional Evolution

Supreme Court’s Current Review

The Supreme Court of India is presently hearing petitions challenging the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar. This has revived a significant legal debate: What is the actual legal status of the right to vote in India?

While voting is fundamental to democracy, Indian legal discourse has fluctuated between classifying it as a constitutional right and a statutory right, with far-reaching consequences for electoral integrity and the enforcement of citizen rights.

Classification of Rights in India

The Indian legal framework categorises rights into various types:

• Natural Rights: These are inherent and inalienable, like the right to life and liberty. Though not directly enforceable, they are often interpreted through Fundamental Rights.
• Fundamental Rights: Codified in Part III of the Constitution, these include rights such as equality, freedom of speech, and protection against discrimination. They are enforceable via Article 32.
• Constitutional Rights: Found in the Constitution but outside Part III. Examples include the right to property and trade. These are enforceable under Article 226 or other appropriate legal forums.
• Statutory Rights: These arise from laws enacted by Parliament or State legislatures, like the right to food under the National Food Security Act or right to work under MGNREGA.

Although the right to vote stems from the Constitution, judicial interpretation has largely regarded it as a statutory right, forming the basis of the present controversy.

Voting: Constitutional and Legal Framework

Article 326 of the Constitution ensures universal adult suffrage, granting the right to vote to every citizen aged 18 and above, barring legal disqualifications. This constitutional guarantee is implemented through two main statutes:

1.     Representation of the People Act, 1950:

o   Section 16: Disqualifies non-citizens from being listed in electoral rolls.

o   Section 19: Requires voters to be at least 18 years old and ordinarily resident on the qualifying date.

2.     Representation of the People Act, 1951:

o   Section 62: Grants voting rights to all enrolled voters unless legally disqualified or incarcerated.

These provisions form the legal basis of voting, thereby reinforcing its characterization as a statutory, not absolute, right.

Judicial Interpretation of Voting Rights

Judicial rulings over the decades reflect an evolving and often conflicting stance on the legal status of voting:

• N.P. Ponnuswami (1952): Declared voting a purely statutory right.
• Jyoti Basu (1982): Reiterated that voting is neither fundamental nor common law, but statutory.
• PUCL Case (2003): Justice P.V. Reddy suggested that despite being statutory, voting could be considered a constitutional right.
• Kuldip Nayar (2006): The court reaffirmed the statutory view.
• Raj Bala (2015): Cited the PUCL judgment to support constitutional recognition of voting.
• Anoop Baranwal (2023): The majority held that voting remains a statutory right.

This shifting interpretation reflects the judiciary’s effort to balance constitutional text with evolving democratic principles.

Dissenting Opinion and the Path Ahead

In the Anoop Baranwal case, a dissenting judge offered a more progressive view, arguing that:

• Voting is an expression of individual choice, protected under Article 19(1)(a) (freedom of speech).
• Free and fair elections are essential to the basic structure of the Constitution.
• The origin of voting rights lies in Article 326, even if operationalised by statute.

This perspective could serve as a foundation for future judicial reconsideration, potentially reclassifying voting as a constitutional or even fundamental right.

Implications of Voting’s Current Legal Status

• Statutory Nature: Allows Parliament to define or limit the right through disqualifications or procedural changes.
• Enforceability: Unlike fundamental rights, voting rights cannot be enforced through Article 32. Legal remedies lie in ordinary courts.
• Need for Reform: Amid rising concerns over voter suppression, digital disenfranchisement, and errors in electoral rolls, the legal classification of voting has direct implications for democratic accountability and electoral transparency.

Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar Resigns Due to Health Reasons

Resignation Announcement

On July 21, during the opening of the Monsoon session of Parliament, Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar tendered his resignation, citing health concerns and medical advice. He submitted his resignation to President Droupadi Murmu under Article 67(a) of the Constitution.

This marks Dhankhar as the third Vice President in Indian history to resign mid-term, after V.V. Giri and R. Venkataraman, who stepped down to contest presidential elections.

Resignation Process: Article 67(a)

Under Article 67(a), the Vice President may resign at any time by submitting a written letter to the President. Once accepted, the resignation becomes effective immediately — no approval or further procedure is required.

Dhankhar, who assumed office in August 2022, resigned two years ahead of his term''s scheduled end in 2027.

Succession Protocol

Following the Vice President’s resignation, an election must be held to fill the vacancy. The Constitution, however, does not provide for an acting Vice President.

During this interim period, the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, currently Harivansh Narayan Singh, will preside over its proceedings, ensuring uninterrupted functioning.

Election Timeline and Administration

• The Constitution stipulates that the Vice-Presidential election be conducted “as soon as possible”, without specifying a strict timeline.
• The Election Commission of India is tasked with declaring the schedule.
• The election is governed by the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952.
• Typically, the Secretary General of either House serves as the Returning Officer, selected on a rotational basis.

Tenure of the New Vice President

A newly elected Vice President, in case of a mid-term resignation, is entitled to serve a full five-year term from the date of assuming office — not merely the remaining duration of the previous officeholder''s term. This distinguishes it from other constitutional roles where successors may serve only the balance of an unexpired term.

Eligibility Criteria

According to Article 66 of the Constitution, a candidate for Vice President must:

• Be an Indian citizen,
• Be at least 35 years old, and
• Be qualified to be elected as a Rajya Sabha member.

The candidate must not hold any office of profit under the central or state governments or public authorities.

Election Process

• The Vice President is elected by an electoral college comprising members of both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, including nominated members.
• State legislatures are not involved.
• Voting occurs via secret ballot, using the proportional representation system with a single transferable vote.
• MPs rank candidates in order of preference.
• A candidate must reach a quota (total valid votes ÷ 2 + 1) to win.
• If no candidate meets the quota initially, the one with the fewest first-preference votes is eliminated, and their votes are redistributed based on second preferences. This process continues until a candidate meets the quota.

Significance of the Vice President

The Vice President is India’s second-highest constitutional authority and serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. Though not a member of any legislative body, the Vice President ensures orderly conduct of proceedings in the Upper House.

In the event of the President’s death, resignation, removal, or incapacity, the Vice President temporarily assumes Presidential duties until a new President is elected.

Parliamentary Select Committee on Income Tax Bill, 2025

Purpose

A Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to review the new Income Tax Bill, 2025, aimed at modernizing India’s outdated tax code to ensure fairness, reduce litigation, and improve clarity.

Key Recommendations

• Upholding Tax Officials'' Powers:
  The Committee supported provisions allowing authorities to access social media and private emails during search and seizure operations, including by force if necessary.
• Modernising Legal Definitions:
  The bill proposes updated definitions for key terms like "capital asset", "infrastructure capital company", and "micro and small enterprises" to align with current laws.
• Support for Businesses and Startups:
  Recommendations include:
• Clearer rules for R&D deductions
• Tax incentives for businesses managing biodegradable waste
• Clarified definitions of "parent company" and "status" for appeals

About the Income-Tax Bill, 2025

• Replacing the 1961 Act:
  The bill seeks to replace the Income-Tax Act, 1961, with a more streamlined and contemporary law.
• Reduction in Complexity:
• 283 sections and 24 chapters from the old Act are being removed to simplify the code.
• Simplified language, including replacing "financial year" and "assessment year" with "tax year."
• Digital and Virtual Assets:
  The bill introduces provisions to define and regulate "virtual digital assets" and "electronic modes" of transactions.

No Major Policy Changes:
There are no changes in tax rates or policy direction, ensuring predictability and continuity for taxpayers.

Motion Submitted in Parliament for Removal of Justice Yashwant Varma

Context

Members of Parliament (MPs) from various political parties have submitted motions in both Houses of Parliament seeking the removal of Justice Yashwant Varma.

Parliamentary Action

• Lok Sabha:
  A total of 145 members of the Lok Sabha have signed and submitted a motion calling for the removal of Justice Varma.
• Rajya Sabha:
  The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha has also received a similar motion backed by more than 50 members from the Upper House.

These actions collectively initiate the constitutional process for the removal of a sitting judge.

Constitutional Provisions for Removal of Judges

1. Article 124(4) – Removal of Supreme Court Judges

• Grounds for Removal:
  A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed only on the basis of proven misbehavior or incapacity.
• Mode of Removal:
  Requires a presidential order following an address by each House of Parliament supported by a special majority.

2. Article 124(5) – Parliamentary Power to Regulate Procedure

• Grants Parliament the authority to establish procedures for the investigation and presentation of removal motions.
• This power led to the enactment of the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968, which outlines the detailed procedure for judicial removal.

3. Article 217(1)(b) – Removal of High Court Judges

• Specifies that a High Court judge may be removed by the President in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge, i.e., as provided under Article 124(4).

4. Article 218 – Extension of Procedure to High Courts

• Ensures that the provisions of Article 124(4) and 124(5) regarding the removal and procedural regulation of Supreme Court judges also apply to High Court judges.

AI vs Copyright: Evolving Legal Perspectives on Fair Use

Recent U.S. Court Rulings on AI and Fair Use

Recent decisions in the United States—Thomson Reuters vs Ross Intelligence, Bartz vs Anthropic, and Kadrey vs Meta—have begun shaping legal interpretations of fair use in the context of AI. These rulings suggest that the use of lawfully obtained text for training AI models may fall under "fair use", particularly when the AI outputs are considered transformative.

However, the courts have not fully addressed issues such as the use of pirated or unauthorized data, nor the broader economic impact on creative industries, leaving many legal questions unresolved. This continues to fuel uncertainty regarding the legal status of AI-generated content.

Copyright Challenges in Generative AI

Generative AI sometimes produces content that closely mimics or replicates copyrighted material, triggering legal and ethical debates. The core legal issue revolves around whether:

• Training AI on copyrighted content constitutes infringement, and
• AI outputs are sufficiently transformative to be considered fair use.

While U.S. law may view such use as fair under certain conditions, other jurisdictions like the EU and UK permit it through text and data mining (TDM) exemptions. However, given that most AI models are trained on large-scale internet datasets—comprising both public domain and copyrighted materials—a global legal consensus is lacking, keeping the regulatory environment fragmented.

Complexities in Database Use and Generative AI

The application of generative AI to databases and published works raises complicated legal questions involving:

• Copyright and IP rights
• Contractual obligations
• Privacy considerations

There is still widespread ambiguity over whether training AI on IP-protected content and generating derivative outputs infringes rights. While certain countries offer fair use, temporary copying, or TDM exceptions, these laws differ greatly and have yet to be uniformly tested in courts.

A major challenge lies in the absence of harmonised international rules, especially in copyright law, which traditionally requires human authorship—a standard AI cannot meet. This leads to ongoing debates about ownership and entitlement over AI-generated content.

Key U.S. Court Decisions: Support for Fair Use, Warnings on Piracy

Two landmark U.S. cases—Anthropic and Meta—have clarified the scope of fair use in AI training:

• In the Anthropic case, the court ruled that using copyrighted material to train AI can be seen as transformative, similar to how human writers learn by reading. However, the court allowed the trial to proceed to assess whether pirated content was used.
• In the Meta case, the court held that the plaintiffs did not prove that AI-generated outputs significantly harmed the market value of original works. Therefore, Meta’s use was upheld under the fair use doctrine.

Both rulings protect AI developers to an extent, but they also caution against using unauthorized or pirated materials. They also highlight the need to develop compensation models for copyright holders whose works are used in AI training.

Implications for India: ANI vs OpenAI and Indian IP Law

The ongoing ANI vs OpenAI case is helping define how Indian intellectual property law applies to generative AI. Under the Copyright Act, 1957, creators have exclusive rights over reproduction, adaptation, and distribution, unless the use qualifies as fair dealing under Section 52.

Though India’s copyright regime does not explicitly address AI, legal experts believe that existing provisions are robust enough to handle most AI-related issues. India also adheres to several international IP treaties and provides for civil and criminal remedies to enforce rights, including those protecting against digital infringement.

India–Taliban 2.0 Engagement: A Strategic Recalibration

Background and Diplomatic Developments

India has recently engaged in high-level talks with the Taliban, including a conversation between EAM S. Jaishankar and Taliban’s Amir Khan Muttaqi, and meetings involving India’s Foreign Secretary. This comes amid Russia''s formal recognition of the Taliban, indicating a shift in regional dynamics and encouraging deeper Indian engagement.

Geopolitical Context of India–Afghanistan Relations

1. Shift from Hostility to Opportunity:
   During the Taliban’s first rule (1996–2001), India faced direct hostility and threats from Pakistan-backed terror outfits operating from Afghanistan. However, post-2021, the Taliban appears more open to engaging with India, partly due to deteriorating relations with Pakistan.
2. Humanitarian Diplomacy:
   India has invested over $3 billion in Afghanistan through infrastructure, education, and health projects, including building the Parliament. It was among the first to send humanitarian aid post-U.S. withdrawal, earning trust and goodwill.
3. Pakistan–Taliban Rift:
   The Taliban’s refusal to act against the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has created friction with Islamabad. India is leveraging this rift to expand its strategic space in Afghanistan.
4. Multi-Ring Strategy:
   According to Shafiee’s theory, Afghanistan lies within India’s ‘first ring’—its immediate neighbourhood—where India seeks strategic primacy to counter Pakistani and Chinese influence.

India’s Strategic Objectives with Taliban 2.0

• Counter-Terrorism: Engagement allows India to prevent Afghan soil from being used for anti-India activities, thereby limiting Pakistan’s influence.
• Access to Central Asia: Afghanistan provides a crucial land bridge to Central Asia. With Pakistan blocking overland routes, India is focusing on alternatives like Chabahar Port and the Zaranj–Delaram highway.
• Energy and Connectivity: Central Asia’s energy reserves are vital for India. Strengthened routes through Afghanistan can support India’s energy diversification strategy.
• Check on China–Pakistan Axis: A strong India–Taliban relationship reduces Pakistan’s strategic depth and counters China''s growing presence via the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
• Regional Security Framework: Drawing on Barry Buzan’s theory, a stable Afghanistan aligned with Indian interests can reinforce a South Asia-centric security order.

Challenges in India–Taliban Engagement

• Diplomatic Legitimacy: The Taliban lacks international recognition and remains under UN sanctions, making full formal recognition a sensitive issue for India.
• Human Rights Violations: The Taliban’s regressive policies on women’s rights and minorities pose significant ethical and diplomatic hurdles.
• Proxy Conflicts with Pakistan: India’s active role in Afghanistan could provoke Pakistani retaliation through proxies.
• Chinese Influence: China’s investments and growing stake in Afghanistan could pose economic and security challenges to Indian interests.
• Internal Taliban Divisions: Factionalism within the Taliban impedes cohesive policymaking, complicating India’s engagement strategy.

Strategic Calculations: India''s Post-2021 Approach

Policy Recommendations and Way Forward

• Engage Without Recognising: Maintain de facto engagement through aid and dialogue, while delaying formal recognition until global consensus emerges.
• Layered Diplomacy: Engage Taliban officials while supporting civil society, women’s rights, and education through multilateral and non-governmental channels.
• Regional Coordination: Deepen strategic cooperation with Iran, Russia, and Central Asia to mitigate Taliban unpredictability and counter the China–Pakistan axis.
• Boost Chabahar Corridor: Accelerate infrastructure development to enable unhindered access to Afghanistan and beyond.
• Prevent Radicalisation Spillover: Strengthen intelligence-sharing and border surveillance to block extremist infiltration into Indian territory.

Conclusion

India’s recalibrated approach toward Taliban 2.0 reflects a move from idealistic diplomacy to realpolitik. Despite ongoing challenges—ranging from human rights concerns to geopolitical rivalries—India is crafting a strategy that secures its security, economic, and regional leadership interests. As Afghanistan becomes a pivotal crossroads in Asian geopolitics, India must engage the Taliban with strategic caution, calculated diplomacy, and consistent resolve

The Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) Paradox in India

Context

Despite notable gains in female literacy, particularly in urban India, female labour force participation remains low, revealing a paradox that questions the inclusiveness of India’s economic growth. The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023–24 reveals a deepening gap between literacy and employment, especially in urban areas.

Key Trends: Literacy vs FLFP Gap (PLFS 2023–24 & World Bank 2024)

• Urban female literacy rate: 84.9%
  Urban Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR): 28%
• Literacy–FLFP gap:
  – Rural: ~22%
  – Urban: ~57%
• National female literacy rate: 74.6%
  Employment gap: 33 percentage points
• India’s position: Sits between developed nations (40-point gap) and developing countries (25-point gap)

Reasons for Low FLFPR: Structural and Social Disconnect

Urban India

• Rigid Job Structures: Most urban service-sector jobs lack flexibility, discouraging women with family duties.
• Mobility & Safety Concerns: Limited access to safe public transport and unsafe urban spaces restrict women''s movement.
• Informal and Insecure Work: Women are disproportionately employed in informal sectors with poor pay and benefits, prompting exits during life events.
• Childcare Deficit: With 61.3% of urban households being nuclear (NFHS-5), lack of childcare infrastructure like crèches compels women to stay home.
• Post-Maternity Dropout: The absence of re-entry pathways or flexible roles after childbirth leads to permanent exits, creating a “care penalty.”

Rural India

• Agricultural Flexibility: Farm work and self-employment offer proximity to home and flexible hours.
• Kinship-Based Childcare: Support from extended families enables women to balance caregiving and work.
• Work Driven by Necessity: Economic hardship—not autonomy—pushes rural women into the workforce.
• Cultural Acceptance: Women’s labour, paid or unpaid, is more culturally normalized in rural areas.
• Crisis Employment: Post-COVID, rural FLFP rose due to return migration and economic distress—not sustained empowerment.

A Puzzling Trend: Declining FLFPR Amid Social Progress

2005–2019 Paradox

• Even as fertility rates declined and female education improved, FLFPR dropped.
• Rising family incomes led to the reinforcement of traditional gender roles—men as breadwinners, women as homemakers.

Post-COVID Developments

• A spike in rural female participation occurred, but it was driven by distress employment and fallback strategies.
• Urban FLFPR remains stagnant, even with increased digitization and economic revival.

Broader Implications: Economic, Social, and Equity Costs

• Loss of Demographic Dividend: A large section of the population remains underutilized, weakening India’s long-term growth potential.
• Hindered Social Progress: Low FLFP slows improvements in health, education, and gender equality.
• Urban Middle-Class Conservatism: Rising incomes have led to greater role traditionalism, prompting many women to opt out of the workforce when not financially essential.
• Global Competitiveness Impact: India’s lagging FLFPR limits its ability to compete with countries like Bangladesh and Vietnam in inclusive development.
• Justice and Equity Gap: Economic exclusion deepens patriarchal norms, denying women access to economic dignity and equal opportunity.

Policy Pathways: The Way Forward

• Public Childcare Infrastructure: Expand anganwadis and establish urban crèche networks to support working mothers.
• Flexible Work Models: Promote part-time roles, gig economy platforms, and remote work to fit women’s time and caregiving responsibilities.
• Legislative Reforms for Safe Workspaces: Enforce the POSH Act and equal pay laws to ensure workplaces are safe and equitable.
• Norms Transformation Campaigns: Launch public campaigns to challenge traditional gender roles and promote shared caregiving.
• Inclusive Urban Design: Invest in safe transport, women-only toilets, and creche-linked workplaces to make cities more gender-responsive.

Conclusion

India’s low female labour force participation is more than a statistical concern—it reflects a deeper gendered social contract. As the nation aims to become a $5 trillion economy, the inclusion of women in the workforce is not just a matter of social equity, but an economic necessity. Neither rural necessity-driven resilience nor urban infrastructure alone is sufficient. What’s required is a dual structural overhaul and a cultural mindset shift to ensure women’s economic participation is both possible and valued.

Government’s Strategic Roadmap for a Sustainable and Competitive Coal Sector

Context

India possesses the fifth-largest coal reserves globally, and coal accounts for 55% of the nation’s total energy consumption.
To modernise the coal sector, reduce import dependency, and align with environmental goals, the government has laid out a multi-pronged strategy focusing on sustainability, efficiency, and self-reliance.

Sustainability Initiatives in the Coal Sector

1.     Greening and Land Reclamation

• Afforestation of Mined-Out Areas: Systematic plantation activities in reclaimed mine lands.
• Participation in Green Credit Programme: Coal and lignite PSUs actively involved in the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change’s (MoEF&CC) initiative to generate green credits.

2.     Treated Mine Water Utilization

• Reuse of mine water for:

a)     Community purposes: Irrigation and domestic supply

b)     Industrial applications: Dust suppression, firefighting

c)     Environmental restoration: Groundwater recharge, aquaculture

3.     Sustainable Sand Extraction

• Overburden Sand Recovery: Extracting sand from overburden (mining waste) for construction use and underground stowing.
• This supports:
• Construction material supply
• Sustainable mining practices
• Revival of riverine ecosystems

4.     Adoption of Blast-Free Mining Technology

• Introduction of modern equipment such as:
• Surface Miners
• Continuous Miners
• Rippers
• These technologies eliminate the need for conventional drilling and blasting, thereby reducing environmental and safety risks.

5.     Clean Coal and Renewable Energy Integration

• Focus areas include:
• Coal Gasification
• Coal Bed Methane (CBM) extraction
• These initiatives aim to reduce the environmental footprint and improve the energy efficiency of coal usage.

Measures to Reduce Coal Imports

1.     Boosting Domestic Production and Usage

• Coal block allocations to private and public sector players
• Streamlined clearance procedures to accelerate operationalisation
• Formation of an Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) to coordinate efforts on coal import substitution

2.     Improving Evacuation and Supply Chain Infrastructure

• Development of:
• New railway lines for coal movement
• Upgraded transport logistics
• First Mile Connectivity (FMC) projects to facilitate faster, cleaner, and more efficient coal loading and dispatch

3.     Fiscal Support via SHAKTI Policy

• Under the SHAKTI (Scheme for Harnessing and Allocating Koyala Transparently in India) policy:
• Imported coal-based power plants are now allowed improved access to domestic coal supply, reducing reliance on imports.

4.     Coking Coal Mission

• Launched to enhance domestic production of coking coal, critical for the steel industry.
• Aims to reduce India''s dependence on coking coal imports and support the growth of indigenous steel manufacturing.

Conclusion

The government’s coal sector strategy reflects a balanced approach, combining economic competitiveness with sustainability imperatives. Through cleaner technologies, improved infrastructure, and reduced import reliance, India aims to ensure energy security, environmental stewardship, and industrial self-reliance in its coal-driven sectors.

India’s Student Suicide Crisis: Supreme Court Takes Suo Motu Cognisance

• Context

Amidst a spate of tragic student suicides in premier academic institutions, the Supreme Court of India has taken suo motu notice, underscoring the need for comprehensive institutional and systemic reforms to address the mental health crisis among students.

Disturbing Statistics (NCRB, 2022)

• Students accounted for 7.6% of all suicide deaths in India.
• Male students recorded a higher suicide rate than their female counterparts.
• The three most affected states were:
• Maharashtra
• Tamil Nadu
• Madhya Pradesh

Underlying Causes of Rising Student Suicides

• 1. Academic Factors
• High stress and academic pressure
• Dissatisfaction with studies or performance
• Failure in exams
• Negative learning environments:
• Poor peer relationships
• Harassment or humiliation
• Isolation from teachers and classmates
• 2. Institutional Factors

• Ragging, bullying, and peer pressure
• Caste-based discrimination
• Toxic campus culture fostering exclusion and mental stress

• 3. Family-Related Issues

• Family instability (e.g., divorce, separation, financial hardship)
• Parental neglect or overpressure
• Bereavement and trauma
• Mental health history or hereditary depression
• Excessive social media usage leading to isolation or low self-worth

• 4. Social Stigma
• Mental illness and suicide-related stigma
• Reluctance to seek help due to fear of judgment or shame

Key Government and Institutional Interventions

1. MANODARPAN Initiative

• Launched by the Ministry of Education
• Offers mental health support through:
• Counselling helplines
• Live interactive sessions
• Outreach to lakhs of students

2. National Tele Mental Health Programme

• Focuses on expanding access to quality mental health care and counselling
• Operates via tele-services to overcome accessibility barriers

3. Supreme Court-Appointed National Task Force

• Set up to:
• Address rising mental health issues in academic spaces
• Prevent student suicides through structural reform
• Recommend actionable policy changes and preventive frameworks

4. District Mental Health Programme

• Run by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
• Covers 767 districts
• Offers:
• Suicide prevention services
• Life skills training in schools and colleges

5. Malaviya Mission Teacher Training Programme

• Conducted by IITs
• Aims to build faculty capacity in:
• Stress management
• Student resilience
• Early identification of mental health red flags

6. UGC Advisory to Higher Education Institutions

• Urges colleges and universities to:
• Prioritise physical fitness, sports, student welfare, and emotional well-being
• Foster an inclusive, empathetic campus culture

Conclusion

The growing rate of student suicides in India signals a deep-rooted crisis that extends beyond academics. It is a reflection of pressures within families, institutions, and society at large, compounded by the lack of accessible and stigma-free mental health services. The Supreme Court’s intervention, alongside existing programmes, offers a chance to build a supportive, responsive ecosystem that prioritises student well-being as a national imperative.

Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara Temple: SIT Investigation and Cultural Significance

Recent Development

• The Karnataka government has formed a Special Investigation Team (SIT) to probe serious allegations involving the secret mass burial of unidentified bodies at the Dharmasthala pilgrimage centre.
• The temple authorities have welcomed the formation of the SIT, indicating support for transparency.

About the Temple

• Location: Dharmasthala town, Karnataka
• Deity: Lord Shiva, worshipped as Lord Manjunatha
• Heritage: The temple is approximately 800 years old
• Administration: Managed by the hereditary Jain Heggade family, with rituals performed by Madhwa Vaishnava Brahmins

Architectural Features

• Style: Built in Kerala temple architecture, distinct from traditional South Indian temple styles.
• Materials Used:
• Granite and laterite for the base structure
• Wood, clay, and metals used in construction
• Design Characteristics:
• Square layout with a pyramidal, sloped roof
• Gold-plated copper sheets cover the wooden roof for protection
• Wooden pillars support the front pavilion

Bitra Island: Defence Acquisition Sparks Controversy

Context

• The Lakshadweep administration has issued a notification to acquire Bitra Island for defence purposes, leading to strong resistance from local communities and political leaders.

Key Details about Bitra Island

• Smallest inhabited island in the Lakshadweep group
• Land area: 0.105 sq. km
• Lagoon area: 45.61 sq. km
• Cultural Landmark: Home to the shrine of Malik Mulla, a revered Arab saint

Location and Jurisdiction

• Coordinates: 11°36′N, 72°11′E
• About 483 km west of Kochi
• Falls under the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, governed by the Lakshadweep Administration

Geographical and Climatic Features

• Coral reef-protected lagoon keeps waters calm even during monsoons
• Tropical and humid climate similar to Kerala
• Annual rainfall: ~1600 mm
• Population (2011 Census): 271 people across 105 households

Strategic and Defence Significance

• Geopolitical Importance:
• Proximity to key international shipping routes
• Near the Strait of Hormuz and Malacca Strait, crucial for maritime surveillance
• Defence Proposal:
• Conversion into a defence outpost to enhance maritime domain awareness
• Would complement INS Dweeprakshak (Kavaratti) and INS Jatayu (Minicoy)
• Justification: The government cites logistical and strategic challenges in maintaining civilian habitation on an island of such sensitivity

Local Opposition and Legal Framework

• “Save Bitra Island” Campaign: Mass mobilization by locals via public protests and social media
• Legal Process:
• Acquisition under the Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013
• Social Impact Assessment (SIA) ordered; survey to be completed within two months

Wider Significance

• Raises important questions about the balance between national security and indigenous rights
• Reflects India’s growing maritime assertiveness in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)
• Third instance of defence-related land acquisition in Lakshadweep, amplifying local tensions

Guryul Ravine Fossil Site: GSI Issues Warning Amid Environmental Threats

Latest Update

• The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has expressed concern over potential threats to the Guryul Ravine fossil site, located in the Khonmoh area near Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

About Guryul Ravine

• Location: In the Vihi district of Kashmir, near Dachigam National Park
• Lies within the Khonmoh Conservation Reserve, an environmentally sensitive area
• Renowned as a fossil repository of global geological importance

Scientific and Historical Significance

• Contains evidence of the Permian–Triassic extinction event (~260 million years ago)
• Documents the "Great Dying", the most catastrophic extinction event in Earth’s history
• Preserves rock layers showing the world’s first known tsunami, still visible in geological formations

About the Permian–Triassic Extinction

• Also called the End-Permian Extinction
• Occurred approximately 251.9 million years ago
• Marked the transition between:
• Permian and Triassic geological periods
• Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras
• Caused the extinction of over 90% of marine species and many terrestrial organisms

Bima Sakhi Yojana

Overview

• The Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Rural Development, to implement the Bima Sakhi Yojana in rural India.
• The initiative aims to promote insurance awareness and financial literacy while creating employment opportunities for women.

Key Features

• A performance-based stipend scheme exclusively for women.
• Women aged 18 to 70 years with a minimum qualification of Class X pass are eligible.
• Offers specialized training followed by a monthly stipend for three years:
• ₹7,000/month in the first year
• ₹6,000/month in the second year
• ₹5,000/month in the third year
• In addition to the stipend, commissions are also provided:
• ₹48,000 (excluding bonus) in the first year
• Post-training, participants can become LIC agents.
• Graduate Bima Sakhis may be eligible for promotion to Development Officer positions.

Scale and Outreach

• The scheme aims to appoint 2 lakh Bima Sakhis across the country over a three-year period.

Eligibility Criteria

• Women aged 18–70 years
• Minimum educational qualification: Passed Class 10
• Preference to women residing in rural areas

• Ineligibility Conditions

• Women who are related to existing LIC agents or employees (includes spouse, children, adopted or stepchildren, parents, siblings, and immediate in-laws)
• Retired LIC employees or ex-agents
• Women who are currently LIC agents

Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER)

Recent Update

• The government has announced a one-year extension of the MOVCDNER for Assam.

About the Scheme

• Launched: 2015–16
• Objective: To promote organic farming in the North Eastern Region through a value chain approach, linking farmers to markets.
• Coverage: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura

Key Components

• Support for:
• Certified organic production
• Organic seed supply
• Certification services
• Infrastructure for collection, processing, packaging, and marketing of organic produce

National List of Essential Diagnostics (NLED)

Latest Development

• The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has released an updated version of the National Essential Diagnostics List (NEDL).

About NEDL

• First launched in 2019
• Purpose: To ensure the minimum essential diagnostic tests are available at all tiers of healthcare — from village-level to PHCs and beyond.

Revised List Highlights

• New additions for Sub-Health Centres (Ayushman Arogya Mandirs):
• Rapid diagnostic tests for:
• Sickle cell anaemia
• Thalassaemia
• Hepatitis B
• Syphilis
• Sample collection for dengue testing

Dark Patterns

Context

• Increasing complaints about manipulative practices on OTT platforms, such as hidden charges, auto-renewing subscriptions, and misleading prompts, despite official warnings and guidelines.

What Are Dark Patterns?

• Design tactics intended to mislead or coerce users into actions they may not want to take.
• Examples include:
• Drip pricing (hidden fees shown late in the process)
• False urgency (limited time offers)
• Disguised advertisements
• Bait and switch tactics

Regulatory Measures

• In 2023, the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) issued:
• Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Dark Patterns, 2023
• Identified 13 manipulative design tactics as unfair trade practices under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019

Bills of Lading Bill, 2025

Overview

• Parliament has officially passed the Bills of Lading Bill, 2025.
• The Bill is intended to modernize and simplify the legal framework governing shipping documentation in India.

Key Highlights

• Replaces the outdated Indian Bills of Lading Act, 1856.
• Defines the Bill of Lading as a document issued by a freight carrier to a shipper, which:
• Serves as a receipt for shipped goods.
• Specifies details such as:
• Type
• Quantity
• Condition
• Destination of goods in transit.

Meri Panchayat App

Recent Recognition

• Awarded the WSIS Prizes 2025 Champion Award, an internationally prestigious honor recognizing excellence in digital innovation.

About the App

• A digital platform developed for rural governance to strengthen the Panchayati Raj system.
• Jointly developed by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj and National Informatics Centre (NIC) under the Ministry of Electronics and IT.

Core Features

• Integrates multiple governance services and data portals into one user-friendly interface.
• Empowers citizens, local officials, and other stakeholders with real-time access to:
• Panchayat budgets, receipts, and payments
• Development plans and GPDPs (Gram Panchayat Development Plans)
• Details of elected representatives and functionaries
• Information on public infrastructure and civic services
• Weather forecasts at Gram Panchayat level
• Social audit tools, fund utilization data, and grievance redressal mechanisms
• Geo-tagged and geo-fenced features for accountability.
• Allows citizens to:
• Propose new projects
• Rate and review completed works
• Access and engage with Gram Sabha agendas and decisions
• Available in 12+ Indian languages for inclusivity.

About WSIS Prizes

• Instituted by the World Summit on the Information Society, the prize recognizes impactful ICT projects that advance sustainable development goals (SDGs) globally.

SASCI Scheme

Context

• The Ministry of Tourism has released detailed operational guidelines for the SASCI Scheme, focusing on transforming tourism infrastructure by 2026.

What is SASCI?

• Full Form: Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment – Development of Iconic Tourist Centres to Global Scale.
• A centrally funded initiative that aims to develop iconic Indian tourist destinations into globally recognized sites.

Key Objectives

• Upgrade Indian tourism destinations to world-class standards.
• Improve visitor experiences, increase international competitiveness, and draw tourism-related investments.

Major Features

• State-driven execution: States propose and manage projects; the Centre provides capital support.
• 24-month implementation deadline for approved projects.
• Focus on end-to-end development, including:
• Infrastructure enhancement
• High-quality tourism services
• Immersive cultural experiences
• Strengthens the tourism value chain, covering:
• Accessibility and connectivity
• Ecological sustainability
• Carrying capacity
• Branding and site management
• Digital marketing campaigns at both domestic and global levels to boost visibility.

Significance

• Drives local employment and tourism-based economic growth.
• Enhances India’s global reputation as a culturally rich, infrastructure-ready destination.
• Promotes cooperative federalism by encouraging States to innovate and take ownership of tourism development.

Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)

India’s Recent Role

• During the 88th Executive Committee session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CCEXEC 88) at FAO headquarters in Rome, India’s contributions to global food standards development were appreciated.

About CAC

• The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is the international food standards-setting body.
• Established in May 1963 by:
• FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)
• WHO (World Health Organization)
• Headquarters: Rome

Mandate

• To protect consumer health and ensure fair practices in international food trade.

• Structure of CAC

• Commission
• Executive Committee
• Codex Secretariat
• Subsidiary Bodies

Membership

• Open to all Member Nations and Associate Members of FAO and WHO.
• Current members: 189 (188 countries + European Union)
• India joined in 1964.
• The Commission meets annually, alternating between Rome and Geneva.

Funding

• Financed by the regular budgets of WHO and FAO.
• All activities are subject to approval by the governing bodies of FAO and WHO.

What is Codex Alimentarius?

• Also known as the “Food Code”.
• A compilation of international standards, guidelines, and codes of practice for food safety and trade.
• Recognized by the WTO under the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures.
• Ensures:
• Health safety of food for consumers.
• Harmonization of national food safety standards.
• Confidence for importers and traders in food quality.

India and Codex

• National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) under FSSAI coordinates Codex-related activities.
• Works with the National Codex Committee to provide India’s input via a structured consultation process.

Lesotho: India’s Growing Bilateral Engagement

Political & Geographical Profile

• Landlocked country, fully surrounded by South Africa.
• Known as the "Kingdom in the Sky", as it’s the only country entirely above 1,000 m elevation.
• Mountains cover two-thirds of the area.
• Highest Peak: Thabana Ntlenyana (3,482 m)
• Major ranges: Drakensberg (eastern boundary), Maloti Mountains
• Natural Resource: Water, referred to as “white gold”

International Seabed Authority (ISA)

Recent Developments

• Despite two weeks of intense negotiations, ISA has yet to finalize rules for deep-sea mineral extraction, even as global pressure — notably from the US — mounts.

About ISA

• An autonomous international organization.
• Established under:
• UNCLOS (1982)
• 1994 Agreement related to Part XI of UNCLOS
• Operational since: 16 November 1994
• Headquarters: Kingston, Jamaica

Mandate

• Regulate mining and related activities in the international seabed area, which lies beyond national jurisdiction.
• Area covers around 54% of global ocean floor.
• Activities must:
• Be conducted for the benefit of humankind
• Ensure protection of the marine environment

Membership

• 169 members: 168 countries + European Union
• Membership is open to all UNCLOS signatories.

• Organizational Structure

• Assembly: Supreme body; sets policies, budgets, elects Council.
• Council: Executive authority (36 members); approves contracts, regulates mining.
• Secretary-General: Nominated by Council, elected by Assembly (4-year term).

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

• Also called Law of the Sea Convention.
• Came into effect on 16 November 1982.
• Provides legal rules for:
• Maritime zones (territorial sea, EEZ, continental shelf)
• Coastal and flag state responsibilities
• Marine resource management
• Environmental protection
• Peaceful dispute resolution

Bharat NCX 2025 (National Cybersecurity Exercise)

Overview

• Officially launched in 2025.
• Conducted by the National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS) in collaboration with Rashtriya Raksha University (RRU).

Objectives

• Strengthen India’s cyber defence preparedness.
• Enhance national resilience against cyberattacks.

Key Features

• Live-fire cyber simulations.
• AI-integrated cybersecurity training.
• Aims to improve real-time response strategies to cyber threats.

Stablecoins

• Context

The GENIUS Act, recently signed by US President Donald Trump, establishes the first federal framework for stablecoins pegged to the US dollar, reviving global interest in regulated digital currencies.

What Are Stablecoins?

Stablecoins are blockchain-based digital currencies that maintain a stable value by pegging themselves to a reference asset, typically a fiat currency such as the US dollar.

Developed By

• Private issuers including:
• Tether (USDT)
• Circle (USDC)
• MakerDAO (DAI)
• Now federally regulated in the US under the GENIUS Act, with oversight and auditing requirements.

Objectives

• Ensure price stability unlike highly volatile cryptocurrencies.
• Facilitate efficient digital payments, especially for cross-border and decentralized transactions.
• Serve as liquidity anchors within the crypto financial ecosystem.

Key Features

1. Pegged Value: Anchored to fiat currencies (e.g., USD), commodities (e.g., gold), or crypto assets.
2. Reserve Mechanisms:
• Fiat-collateralised (e.g., USDC)
• Crypto-collateralised (e.g., DAI)
• Algorithmic (e.g., TerraUSD, now defunct)
• Commodity-backed (e.g., PAX Gold)
3. Blockchain-Enabled: Allows real-time, borderless, programmable payments.
4. Regulatory Disclosure (GENIUS Act):
• 100% reserve backing
• Monthly audits
• Focus on consumer protection
5. Smart Contract Compatibility: Widely used in DeFi for lending, trading, and liquidity provision.

Significance

• Financial Inclusion: Provides digital payment access in regions with limited banking infrastructure.
• Reduced Transaction Costs: Enables low-cost, fast international remittances.
• Hedge Against Volatility: Used as a digital safe haven during periods of crypto market instability.

Stablecoins vs CBDCs

NISAR Satellite

Context

The NISAR satellite, a joint venture between NASA and ISRO, is scheduled for launch on July 30, 2025 from Sriharikota, using the GSLV-F16 rocket. This marks a major milestone in global Earth observation and US-India space cooperation.

About NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar)

• NISAR is the first dual-frequency Earth observation satellite using both L-band (NASA) and S-band (ISRO) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
• Designed to provide high-resolution Earth imaging in all weather conditions, both day and night.

Collaborating Agencies

• NASA (Jet Propulsion Laboratory):
• Supplies the L-band radar, GPS, communication systems, and data subsystem.
• ISRO:
• Provides the S-band radar, satellite bus, GSLV-F16 launch vehicle, and ground segment.

Objectives

• Monitor:
• Land surface deformation
• Glacier dynamics and ice sheet changes
• Agricultural and forest ecosystem activity
• Assist in:
• Disaster response
• Climate change studies
• Resource and soil moisture mapping

Key Features

• Dual-Frequency SAR: Combines L-band and S-band radars for comprehensive surface scanning.
• Unfurlable Antenna: 12-meter mesh reflector enhances imaging precision.
• SweepSAR Technology: Covers a swath of 242 km, revisiting the same area every 12 days.
• High Precision: Capable of detecting surface movement under 1 cm, aiding in fault line and landslide mapping.
• Global Coverage: Provides 24/7 all-weather scanning of the Earth’s surface.

India’s Contribution

ISRO is responsible for:

• S-band radar system
• Modified I3K satellite bus
• Launch via GSLV-F16
• Ground operations and mission control

Significance

• First-of-its-kind Earth observation mission using dual radar frequencies.
• Symbol of enhanced Indo-US space diplomacy, following the 2014 MoU.
• Supports global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through environmental and disaster monitoring.

Hatti Tribe

• Context

A woman in Sirmaur district, Himachal Pradesh, recently married two brothers from the Hatti tribe, sparking renewed public and legal discussion about the tribe’s traditional polyandry practice, locally known as Jodidara or Jajda.

Who Are the Hattis?

• The Hattis are a Scheduled Tribe (ST) in Himachal Pradesh, primarily located in the Trans-Giri region, and also in Jaunsar Bawar, Uttarakhand.
• The name “Hatti” originates from their traditional role as sellers at haats (rural markets), dealing in local produce, wool, and meat.

Geographical Distribution

• The Hatti tribe is concentrated in hilly regions between the Giri and Tons rivers, both tributaries of the Yamuna River.
• Key areas:
• Sirmaur district (Himachal Pradesh)
• Dehradun district (Uttarakhand)
• Historically, the region was part of the Sirmaur princely state and came under British rule after 1814.

Cultural and Social Characteristics

• Attire: Hatti men wear white headgear on ceremonial occasions.
• Community Governance: They are governed by a traditional council called Khumbli, which decides matters related to customs and local disputes.
• Marriage System:
• The Hatti tribe practices polyandry.
• Inter-clan marriages are common between Hatti populations in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
• Community life is marked by collective celebrations and strong kinship ties.

Understanding Polyandry

• Polyandry refers to a marriage arrangement in which one woman has multiple husbands.
• Types:
1. Fraternal (Adelphic): The husbands are brothers.
2. Non-Fraternal: The husbands are unrelated, and share time with the wife in rotational turns.

Polyandry Among the Hattis

• Local Terms: Known as Jodidara or Jajda.
• Ceremony: Includes a “Seenj” ritual held at the groom’s home.
• Reasons for Continuation:
• Land Conservation: Prevents the fragmentation of ancestral agricultural land.
• Family Workforce: Ensures enough manpower for farming and guarding remote properties.
• Economic Logic: Helps in the shared care of livestock and dispersed farmlands.
• Social Harmony: Reinforces joint family unity, even among half-brothers.

Legal Perspective on Polyandry in India

General Legal Provisions

• Polyandrous unions are not recognized under Indian law, including:
• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
• Special Marriage Act
• Section 82 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), which penalizes bigamy.

Special Provisions for Scheduled Tribes

• The Hindu Marriage Act does not automatically apply to Scheduled Tribes unless specifically notified by the Central Government.
• Customary Practices:
• If the practice is longstanding, reasonable, and not against public policy, it may be considered valid under Indian law.
• Legal Reference:
• Section 13 of the Indian Evidence Act allows customs to be proved in civil cases as valid practice.

Other Indian Communities with Historical Polyandry Practices