Operation Epic Fury

• The United States military has officially named its recent strikes on Iran as Operation Epic Fury, amid escalating tensions over Iran’s nuclear programme and regional security concerns.

About Operation Epic Fury:

• Operation Epic Fury is the codename adopted by the Pentagon for US military operations targeting Iranian military infrastructure, carried out in coordination with Israeli strikes.
• It represents a large-scale military campaign aimed at weakening perceived threats posed by Iran’s military and strategic capabilities.

Nations Involved:

• United States – Led and officially named the operation.
• Israel – Conducted coordinated strikes alongside US forces.
• Iran – Targeted country; responded with retaliatory actions.

Aim:

• Neutralise perceived military and missile threats.
• Constrain Iran’s nuclear and strategic capabilities.
• Strengthen regional security from the perspective of US–Israel strategic interests.

Key Features:

• Codename Formalisation: Pentagon officially designated the operation as Operation Epic Fury, indicating a major organised military campaign.
• Coordinated Strikes: Conducted jointly with Israel against multiple targets in Iran.
• Precision Military Operations: Included air and missile strikes targeting military infrastructure and strategic assets.
• High Regional Impact: Triggered retaliatory responses and heightened military alerts across the Middle East.
• Escalation of US–Iran Tensions: Occurs amid long-standing disputes over Iran’s nuclear programme and regional influence.

Significance:

• Major Geopolitical Escalation: Signals a sharp rise in military confrontation in West Asia.
• Regional Security Implications: Raises risks of wider conflict involving Gulf states and allied forces.

SEBI Mandates Registered Name & Number Disclosure on Social Media

• SEBI has issued a new circular mandating all SEBI-registered market intermediaries to disclose their registered name and registration number while posting securities-related content on social media.

What it is?

• A regulatory directive issued by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) requiring all SEBI-regulated entities and their agents to prominently display their registered identity and registration number on social media platforms while sharing securities market-related content.

Aim:

• To help investors clearly distinguish between authorized SEBI-regulated entities and unregistered or misleading financial influencers, thereby improving transparency and trust in digital investment communication.

Key Features:

• Mandatory Identity Disclosure: Registered name and SEBI registration number must appear on social media profiles and at the beginning of each securities-related post or video.
• Wide Coverage: Applies to stockbrokers, mutual funds, investment advisers, research analysts, portfolio managers, AIFs, AMCs, REITs, InvITs and their distributors/agents.
• Broad Platform Scope: Includes YouTube, Instagram, WhatsApp, Telegram, X, Facebook, LinkedIn, Reddit, Threads and even closed or semi-closed groups.
• Multiple Registration Rule: Entities with multiple registrations must provide a web link listing all registrations; individual posts need only relevant registration details.

Significance:

• Investor Protection: Reduces misinformation and fake financial advice by enabling easy verification of regulated entities.
• Market Transparency: Strengthens accountability and credibility in digital financial communication under SEBI’s Ease of Doing Investment initiative.

25 Years of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power commemorated its 25th Foundation Day, marking a major milestone in India’s energy-efficiency journey.

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): What it is?

• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Power, responsible for promoting energy efficiency and reducing energy intensity across sectors of the Indian economy.
• It acts as India’s nodal institution for designing and implementing energy conservation policies and programmes.

Established in:

• Established: 1 March 2002
• Legal Basis: Energy Conservation Act, 2001
• Parent Ministry: Ministry of Power, Government of India
• Headquarters: New Delhi, India

Brief History:

• Created after the enactment of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 to institutionalise energy efficiency in India.
• Over two decades, BEE expanded from appliance labeling initiatives to large-scale industrial, building, and transport efficiency programmes.
• Key milestones include the Standards & Labelling Programme, Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme, and transition toward market-based carbon mechanisms such as the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS).

Aim / Mission:

1. Reduce the energy intensity of the Indian economy.
2. Promote self-regulation and market-based mechanisms for energy conservation.
3. Enable sustainable development through efficient energy use across all sectors.

Key Functions:

• Policy Leadership: Provides recommendations and direction for national energy conservation strategies.
• Programme Implementation: Designs and coordinates schemes such as PAT, Standards & Labelling, and energy efficiency in buildings and industries.
• Monitoring & Verification: Develops systems for measuring and verifying energy savings.
• Standards & Certification: Establishes testing and certification protocols for appliances and equipment.
• Energy Audits: Mandates audits for designated energy-intensive industries.
• Research & Capacity Building: Promotes R&D and strengthens consultancy services in energy conservation.
• Consumer Awareness: Encourages informed purchasing through star labelling and digital tools like the Star Label App.

Significance:

• Energy Security: Reduces demand growth by conserving electricity, lowering dependence on additional generation capacity.
• Climate Commitments: Supports India’s goals of lowering emissions intensity and increasing non-fossil energy share.

Centre designates Legacy Thrust Territories

• The Ministry of Home Affairs has introduced the concept of Legacy Thrust Territories to prevent the resurgence of Left Wing Extremism (LWE) after major operational gains against Naxalism.

Legacy Thrust Territories:

• Legacy Thrust Territories are previously Naxal-affected districts identified by the Union Government for continued security presence and focused developmental intervention, even after major decline in insurgent activities.
• The framework ensures that gains achieved against Left Wing Extremism are not reversed.

Regions Designated:

• Earlier, nearly 200 districts were affected by LWE (around 2000).
• By 2025, the number declined to 38 districts.
• Currently, only 7 districts remain on the LWE list:

1. 5 in Chhattisgarh
2. 1 in Jharkhand
3. 1 in Odisha

• These and other formerly affected districts are being brought under the Legacy Thrust framework for sustained monitoring.

Aim:

• Prevent resurgence of Naxalism after operational successes.
• Ensure smooth transition from security-led operations to governance-led development.
• Consolidate peace through infrastructure, administration, and socio-economic integration.

Key Features

• Sustained Security Deployment: Continued presence of central forces to avoid security vacuums.
• Development Push: Focus on roads, telecom connectivity, governance delivery, and public services.
• Phased Redeployment: Gradual withdrawal/redeployment instead of abrupt exit.
• Centre–State Coordination: Joint strategy with operational freedom for security forces.
• Administrative Strengthening: Improving bureaucratic responsiveness in former conflict zones.
• Monitoring of Extremist Propaganda: Increased intelligence surveillance, including digital spaces.
• Rehabilitation Focus: Encouraging surrender of remaining cadres alongside targeted operations.

Significance:

• Prevents Relapse: Addresses historical risk of insurgency revival after security gains.
• Governance Consolidation: Bridges administrative gaps that extremists exploit.

Pakistan Declared Open War on Afghanistan’s Taliban Government

• Pakistan and Afghanistan entered a state of open war after the escalation of long-standing border tensions.
• Operation: Pakistan launched Operation Ghazab Lil Haq, targeting Afghan military installations in Kabul, Kandahar, and Paktia.
• Afghan Retaliation: Afghanistan conducted air strikes on Nur Khan Airbase (Rawalpindi) and 12th Division headquarters (Quetta).
• India’s Stand: India condemned Pakistan’s military actions and reaffirmed support for Afghan sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence.

Factors Behind Afghanistan-Pakistan Open War

• TTP Sanctuary: The Afghan Taliban’s alleged sheltering of Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has allowed the group to launch cross-border attacks on Pakistan.
• Border Dispute: By refusing to recognise the Durand Line, the Taliban keeps the colonial border a live flashpoint between the two countries.
• Fence Clashes: Afghan forces’ resistance to Pakistan’s 2,600 km border fencing has escalated into direct military clashes at disputed checkpoints.
• Lost Leverage: The Taliban’s post-2021 diplomatic and economic proximity to India has eroded Pakistan’s strategic influence over its western neighbour.
• Backfired Pressure: Repeated closures of the Torkham crossing have pushed Kabul toward Iranian trade routes, deepening the bilateral rift.

Key Implications for India

• LoC Relief: Escalation along the western border may compel Pakistan to reduce infiltration pressure along the Line of Control (LoC).
• Terror Spillover: Prolonged instability risks allowing Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISIS-K) to regroup and expand its footprint across South Asia.
• Connectivity Risks: Ongoing conflict jeopardises India’s access to the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and its Central Asian trade outreach.
• Refugee Pressure: A full-scale conflict risks a mass Afghan refugee inflow, putting direct pressure on India’s borders and foreign policy.

Space Re-entry

• Space re-entry has gained attention with advancing human spaceflight missions, especially India’s Gaganyaan programme, which focuses on safely returning astronauts to Earth.

What is Space Re-entry?

• Space re-entry refers to the process by which a spacecraft or crew capsule returns from orbit and safely passes through Earth’s atmosphere to land on the surface.

What is a Re-entry Corridor?

• The re-entry corridor is a narrow, precisely defined atmospheric window through which a spacecraft must enter Earth’s atmosphere to ensure safe return.
• Too shallow (Overshoot): The spacecraft may skip off the atmosphere and return to space.
• Too steep (Undershoot): Extreme heat and deceleration forces can destroy the vehicle or endanger the crew.
• Hence, maintaining the correct entry angle is critical for survival.

How Space Re-entry Works?

• De-orbit Burn: The spacecraft turns opposite to its direction of travel and fires engines to reduce orbital velocity, allowing gravity to pull it into the atmosphere.
• Atmospheric Aerobraking: Atmospheric drag converts kinetic energy into heat, slowing the capsule rapidly.
• Thermal Protection: Heat shields protect the capsule using ablation or insulation to withstand temperatures generated during re-entry.
• Controlled Guidance: Semi-ballistic design and attitude control help maintain the vehicle within the re-entry corridor and guide it toward the landing zone.
• Communication Blackout: Ionised plasma forms around the capsule, temporarily blocking radio communication.
• Parachute Deployment & Landing: At lower altitudes, multi-stage parachutes reduce speed for safe splashdown or landing.

What is a Semi-Ballistic Body?

• A semi-ballistic body is a re-entry vehicle that is not fully steerable like an aircraft but is also not completely passive like a falling object.
• By flying at a controlled angle of attack (created through an offset centre of gravity), it generates limited aerodynamic lift in addition to drag.
• This lift allows the capsule to perform small steering corrections, control descent path, and accurately reach a designated landing zone during atmospheric re-entry.

What is a Communication Blackout?

• A communication blackout occurs during re-entry when extreme heat ionises surrounding air, creating a plasma layer around the spacecraft. This plasma sheath blocks or reflects radio signals, temporarily preventing communication between the spacecraft and ground stations.
• Communication resumes once the vehicle slows down and the plasma dissipates at lower altitudes.

How will the Gaganyaan Crew Module Re-enter?

• The Orbital Module consists of a Crew Module (CM) and a Service Module (SM).
• Re-entry begins with a de-orbit burn performed by the SM to reduce orbital velocity.
• After de-orbiting, the Service Module separates and burns up in the atmosphere.
• The Crew Module enters Earth’s atmosphere within a carefully controlled re-entry corridor to avoid overshoot or undershoot.
• Operating as a semi-ballistic body, it performs controlled manoeuvres using thrusters to maintain trajectory.
• A robust thermal protection system shields the module from intense heating.
• At lower altitudes, a three-stage parachute system deploys to reduce speed.
• The capsule finally performs a safe splashdown in the Bay of Bengal, the designated recovery zone for the mission.

Israel’s Multi-Layered Defence System

• Fresh hostilities involving Iran, Israel, and a U.S.-led coalition have renewed global attention on Israel’s multi-layered missile defence architecture amid large-scale missile and drone attacks.

Israel’s Multi-Layered Defence System:

• Israel’s multi-layered defence is an integrated air and missile defence architecture designed to intercept aerial threats at different ranges, altitudes, and flight phases.
• It combines space/long-range interception, mid-range missile defence, short-range rocket protection, and directed-energy systems, supported by advanced radar and command networks.

Key Defence Security Systems:

1. Arrow System (Arrow-2 & Arrow-3)

• Long-range missile defence developed by Israel with U.S. cooperation.
• Arrow-3 intercepts missiles outside the atmosphere (exo-atmospheric), while Arrow-2 operates within the atmosphere.
• Designed mainly against medium- and long-range ballistic missile threats.

2. David’s Sling

• Mid-range interceptor system designed to neutralize ballistic missiles (100–200 km range), cruise missiles, and aircraft.
• Uses Stunner interceptors with high precision targeting.

3. Iron Dome

• Short-range defence system operational since 2011.
• Intercepts rockets, mortars, and drones using radar-guided Tamir interceptors.
• Selectively engages only threats projected to hit populated areas, improving efficiency.

4. Iron Beam

• High-energy laser defence system declared operational in late 2025.
• Uses directed energy to disable drones, rockets, and mortars at low cost compared to missile interceptors.

5. THAAD (U.S.-supplied)

• Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system deployed to enhance protection against ballistic missiles in their terminal phase.
• Adds an additional high-altitude interception layer.

Air-to-Air Defence

• Israeli fighter jets and helicopters use air-to-air missiles to intercept incoming drones and airborne threats.

Significance:

• Multiple interception layers increase probability of successful defence against diverse threats including ballistic missiles and drone swarms.
• Enhances national security, reduces damage from missile barrages, and provides decision-makers more response time during conflicts.

Re-engaging India’s Globally Positioned Talent

• Shifts in global migration policies have intensified India’s need for a structured strategy to attract, reintegrate, and retain highly skilled professionals positioned abroad.

Need for a Structured Talent Re-engagement Strategy

• Brain Circulation: With Indian nationals accounting for ~ 71% of H-1B approvals in FY2024, external policy disruptions create a window for converting brain drain into productive brain circulation.
• Innovation Deficit: India’s R&D expenditure remains at just 0.64% of GDP, significantly lower than that of advanced economies, underscoring the urgency of attracting globally trained researchers.
• Retention Constraints: Mobility studies indicate that wage incentives alone are insufficient, as long-term talent retention depends on networks, family support systems, and institutional ecosystems.
• Global Competition for Skills: Advanced economies increasingly deploy targeted migration and research policies, intensifying the race for high-end human capital.

Key Initiatives Supporting Talent Re-engagement

• GATI: Global Access to Talent from India is designed to strengthen engagement with globally positioned Indian professionals by facilitating cross-border innovation linkages.
• eMigrate V2.0: A digital migration governance platform improving transparency, worker protection, and skill-matching efficiency across overseas employment ecosystems.
• VAJRA: Visiting Advanced Joint Research is a faculty scheme that allows overseas scientists and academicians to work as adjunct faculty in Indian institutions, converting “brain drain” into “brain gain”.
• KIP: Know India Programme is a diaspora engagement initiative fostering cultural, economic, and institutional linkages between India and young overseas Indians.

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD)

• Objective: Prawasi Bhartiya Diwas is celebrated annually on January 9th to mark the contribution of the Overseas Indian community to the development of India.
• Historical Background: The date January 9 was chosen to commemorate the return of Mahatma Gandhi from South Africa to India in 1915.
• Inception: Established in 2003 following the recommendations of the High-Level Committee on Indian Diaspora (headed by L.M. Singhvi).
• Format: It was an annual event until 2015. Since 2015, it has been celebrated as a biennial event.
• Organisers: Ministry of External Affairs, in partnership with a selected State Government.

PM Inaugurates Semiconductor Plant in Gujarat

• PM Narendra Modi inaugurated a semiconductor Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging (ATMP) facility in Sanand, Gujarat.
• It was founded through a collaboration between Micron Technology (United States) and Tata Projects.
• This facility is the first large-scale project carried out under the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM).
• Operations: The plant will assemble, test, and package advanced memory and storage solutions using wafers from Micron Technology’s global network.
• Significance: The facility supports India’s target of a $100 billion semiconductor ecosystem by 2030, decreases import reliance, and enhances India–US relations.
• ISM was launched in 2021 under the Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MeitY) to establish basic infrastructure for semiconductors in India.
• ISM 2.0, announced in the Union Budget 2026–27, shifts focus to a high-value semiconductor ecosystem, aiming for 70–75% domestic chip self-sufficiency by 2029.

Prachand Light Combat Helicopter (LCH)

• President Droupadi Murmu undertook a sortie in the indigenous Light Combat Helicopter Prachand at Air Force Station Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
• Prachand is India’s first indigenous multi-role Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), designed and developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
• Purpose: It is engineered for high-altitude warfare and thin-air operations in the Himalayan terrain.
• Altitude: Prachand is the only attack helicopter in the world capable of landing and taking off at 5,000 metres with a full combat load.
• Engines: It is powered by twin Shakti turboshaft engines, co-developed by HAL and France’s Safran.
• Performance: The helicopter has a maximum speed of 268 km/h and a combat range of 550 km.
• Stealth Features: It has a low radar cross-section, radar-absorbing materials, and an infrared suppressor.
• Armament: The LCH is designed to carry a 20 mm nose-mounted turret gun, laser-guided rockets, Dhruvastra anti-tank guided missiles, and Mistral-2 air-to-air missiles.

Government Bank Dashboard and Manual Initiatives

• Ministry of Finance launched Government Bank Dashboard and the Government Bank Manual to improve governance in banks handling government transactions.
• Government Bank Dashboard is a centralised digital platform for real-time tracking of government banking transactions and fund utilisation.
• Government Bank Manual prescribes standardised procedures, reporting obligations, and strict reconciliation timelines for public and private-sector banks.
• Objective: The initiatives aim to reduce procedural ambiguity, mitigate operational risks, and establish uniform benchmarks among participating banks.
• Significance: The initiatives shift oversight from reactive corrections to proactive, real-time performance monitoring and institutional accountability.

Football for Schools (F4S) Initiative

• Source (PIB): Union Minister of State for Education presided over a football distribution event in West Bengal as part of the Football for Schools (F4S) initiative.
• The F4S is a global initiative launched by Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) in 2019 in collaboration with UNESCO.
• Objective: Integrate football into education to improve access and support children’s education, development, and empowerment.
• India’s Implementation: Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS) acts as the nodal agency under the Ministry of Education, supported by All India Football Federation (AIFF) and Sports Authority of India (SAI).
• Target: F4S aims to benefit nearly 700 million children globally, with 50% female participation; India has committed to reaching 25 million children.
• Policy Alignment: It aligns with India’s NEP 2020 and with global frameworks, including the UN SDGs and WHO’s Global Action Plan on Physical Activity (GAPPA).

Nine Cheetahs from Botswana Translocated Under Project Cheetah

• Nine cheetahs from Botswana arrived at Kuno National Park (KNP), Madhya Pradesh, under Project Cheetah.
• This is the third African cheetah batch translocated to India, after 8 from Namibia (2022) and 12 from South Africa (2023).
• Population: With six females and three males added, India’s total cheetah population has reached 48.
• Kuno National Park houses 45 cheetahs, including 28 India-born cubs.
• Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh has 3 translocated adult cheetahs.
• Project Cheetah is India’s flagship initiative to reintroduce cheetahs after their official extinction in 1952. It is the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a large wild carnivore.

Meningococcal Infection

• Meghalaya issued a public health advisory after two Agniveer trainees died from suspected meningococcal infection in Shillong.
• Meningococcal disease is a life-threatening bacterial infection caused by Neisseria meningitidis.
• It primarily affects the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges) and can also lead to severe blood poisoning (septicemia).
• Transmission: The pathogen spreads from person to person through respiratory droplets or saliva and has no animal vector.
• Symptoms: Include sudden high fever, severe headache, neck stiffness, photophobia, and a non-blanching purpuric rash.
• Fatality: The disease can become fatal within 24–48 hours without immediate intervention; 10–15% of patients die even with treatment.
• Treatment: It is preventable with vaccines and treatable with high-dose intravenous antibiotics such as ceftriaxone or penicillin.
• Disease Burden: The ‘Meningitis Belt’, a region in sub-Saharan Africa stretching from Senegal to Ethiopia, bears the highest global burden.
• Global Target: The WHO roadmap “Defeat Meningitis by 2030” aims to eliminate epidemics, reduce vaccine-preventable bacterial meningitis cases by 50%, and cut related deaths by 70%.

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)

• Scientists have developed antibodies that successfully inhibit Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in preclinical trials.
• EBV, also known as Human Herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4), is a double-stranded DNA virus that infects almost 95% of the global adult population.
• Transmission: It primarily spreads through saliva, and also via blood transfusions or organ transplants.
• Primary Infection: EBV commonly causes Infectious mononucleosis, marked by fever, sore throat, fatigue, and lymph node swelling.
• Associated Diseases: It is a potential prerequisite for Multiple Sclerosis and is linked to Burkitt lymphoma (blood cancer), as well as gastric and nasopharyngeal cancers.
• Unique Feature: The virus remains lifelong in B lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) in latent form after primary infection. It can reactivate due to stress or a weak immune system.

New Study on Evolutionary Shift in Malaria Vectors

• A recent genetic study found that certain malaria-transmitting mosquitoes began biting hominins around 1.8 million years ago.
• Geographic Origin: This evolutionary shift occurred in the Anopheles leucosphyrus group in Southeast Asia, on Sundaland.
• Evolutionary Trigger: The emergence of human-feeding behaviour (anthropophily) coincided with the arrival of Homo erectus in the region.
• Comparative Timeline: This adaptation predates similar human-feeding behaviour in African Anopheles gambiae by over one million years.
• Significance: The study offers biological evidence of early hominin migration into Southeast Asia, supporting the scarce fossil record.

About Malaria

• Malaria is an acute, life-threatening disease caused by protozoans of the Plasmodium group. The parasites multiply in the liver and damage human red blood cells (RBCs).
• Vector: It spreads primarily through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• India’s Progress: India exited WHO’s High Burden to High Impact group in 2024 after nearly 80% decline in malaria cases and deaths between 2015 and 2023.
• Elimination Target: India aims for zero indigenous malaria cases by 2027 and complete national elimination by 2030.

Nyoma Air Base

• India’s upgraded Mudh-Nyoma Air Force Station is now the world’s highest operational fighter-capable airfield.
• Location: The airfield is in the Changthang region of Eastern Ladakh, at an elevation of 13,700 feet, about 23–35 km from the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
• Executing Agency: Border Roads Organisation (BRO) upgraded the airfield under Project Himank.
• Project Himank is a strategic initiative by the BRO to construct and maintain critical border infrastructure across Ladakh’s extreme, high-altitude terrain.
• Strategic Access: It enables swift mobilisation to sensitive zones such as Pangong Tso, Demchok, and Depsang Plains along the eastern Ladakh frontier.
• Operational Features: Includes an all-weather runway capable of handling advanced fighter jets, heavy transport aircraft, Apache helicopters, and unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs).
• Significance: The base strengthens India’s rapid military response to China while supporting disaster relief and regional connectivity in Ladakh.

Chungthang–Lachen Axis and Taram Chu Bridge

• Recently, the Government of India inaugurated the restored Chungthang–Lachen Axis and the 400-ft “Bailey Suspension” Taram Chu Bridge in North Sikkim.

Chungthang – Lachen Axis

• Location: Situated in North Sikkim, a strategically sensitive Himalayan district.
• Length & Connectivity: A 28 km critical road stretch restoring access between Chungthang & Lachen.
• Strategic Significance: Restores a vital border-logistics corridor to forward areas in North Sikkim, enabling rapid troop mobilisation and civilian relief movement in disaster-hit terrain.

Taram Chu Bridge

• Type & Structure: A 400-foot Bailey Suspension Bridge constructed across the Taram Chu River.
• Restoration Role: Rebuilt as part of post-disaster infrastructure recovery following severe landslides.
• Significance: Provides all-weather, disaster-resilient crossing over a flash-flood/landslide-prone river, ensuring uninterrupted supplies, evacuation and security force access.

Bailey Bridge

• Definition: A portable, modular steel truss bridge designed for rapid assembly and deployment.
• Origin: Developed by the United Kingdom during World War II for military logistics.
• Advantage: No heavy equipment required for installation & can be assembled in  difficult terrains.