CCI''s draft regulations on cost in predatory pricing by dominant firms

• In February 2025, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) released draft regulations titled The Competition Commission of India (Determination of Cost of Production) Regulations, 2025. These draft regulations seek to replace the earlier 2009 regulations on the subject.
• The proposed regulations aim to modernise the framework for assessing predatory pricing under the Competition Act, 2002, aligning it with contemporary economic theories in other jurisdictions and global best practices. The draft regulations invite public consultations from stakeholders until March 19, 2025, via the CCI portal.
• Predatory pricing is an anti-competitive practice under Section 4(2)(a)(ii) of the Competition Act, defined as selling goods or services below cost by a ‘dominant firm’ with the intent to eliminate competitors. For a pricing strategy to be classified as predatory, all three conditions must be met:
• A (i) Dominant market position (defined under the Act, under Section 4 explanation (a), with the ability to control prices and restrict competition).
• (ii) Pricing below cost (as defined under the new draft regulations).
• (iii) Intent to eliminate competition (creating a monopoly after eliminating competitors, rather than simply engaging in competitive pricing).
• The most significant change in the new draft regulations is the removal of “market value,” which previously caused ambiguity, and the addition of “average total cost (ATC).” Average variable cost means total variable cost divided by total output during the referred period. In specific cases, the CCI may consider other cost assessment measures as outlined in the new regulations, such as average total cost, average avoidable cost, or long-run average incremental cost, depending on the industry, market conditions, and technology involved.
• The CCI or the director general may seek assistance from experts to determine cost figures. Enterprises disputing the cost determination can request an independent expert review at their own expense, ensuring a fair and transparent process.
• These proposed regulations, following the 2023 amendments to the Competition Act, reflect the CCI''s proactive approach in addressing anti-competitive practices by updating its tools and methodologies in line with evolving market dynamics and stakeholder consultations
• CCI has so far applied the earlier 2009 regulations in limited cases and has rightly refrained from pricing interventions in the market, which should be governed by competition. Market prices depend on legitimate competition and dynamics among market participants, ensuring the best quality and price for consumers. As indicated above, for pricing to be classified as predatory under the Act, it is necessary to meet the following condition
• A i) Dominance in the market.
• (ii) Pricing below cost, as benchmarked under the new regulations instead of the ‘market’ or ‘average variable cost.’
• (iii) Intent to drive competitors out of the market.
• There may be various valid reasons for a reduction in prices, such as short-term promotional discounts, introductory offers, or limited-time discounts to attract customers. Other factors, such as government subsidies or support programmes, may also influence pricing. These are legitimate market dynamics and cannot be categorised as predatory pricing.
• Certain sections of the media have linked these new draft regulations to ‘e-commerce’ or ‘quick-commerce,’ alleging that platforms have engaged in unfair competitive practices by reducing prices, as claimed by some brick-and-mortar traders.
• While CCI may examine such cases under other existing provisions of the Act, there is no direct connection between these matters and the new draft regulations, which do not affect such enterprises or platforms.
• CCI has so far acted as a fair and mature regulator, fulfilling its role under the Preamble of the Act: "keeping in view the economic development of the country, for the establishment of a commission to prevent practices having an adverse effect on competition, to promote and sustain competition in markets, to protect the interests of consumers, etc."
• It has also introduced several measures, such as time-bound approval of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) cases under the 2023 Act and a green channel mechanism to fast-track investment cases, establishing its reputation as a fair, impartial, and balanced regulator.
• In handling cases brought before it, CCI is expected to continue its role as a fair market regulator, while also encouraging investments in the fast-changing techno-economic landscape and meeting the needs of the economy.

What is predatory pricing?

• Predatory pricing is the sale of goods or provision of services at a price below the cost, as determined by regulations, with the intent to reduce competition or eliminate competitors.
• Imposition of unfair or discriminatory prices (including predatory pricing) by a dominant enterprise or group is prohibited under provisions of Section 4 of the Competition Act, 2002.
• Dominant position means a position of strength, enjoyed by an enterprise, in the relevant market, which enables it to operate independently of competitive forces prevailing in the relevant market, or affect its competitors or consumers or the relevant market in its favour.
• Generally, low prices benefit consumers. Consumers are harmed only if below-cost pricing allows a dominant competitor to knock its rivals out of the market and then raise prices to above-market levels for a substantial time.
• Predatory pricing has been around for centuries. At the height of the Gilded Age, Standard Oil in the US famously used anti-competitive pricing practices to secure its monopoly position in petroleum. 
• One of those tactics included cutting prices aggressively below its own costs in a local market when rivals entered that market, ultimately driving out those rivals to maintain its dominance. Once the rivals had exited the market and Standard Oil was no longer forced to compete, it would raise the prices back up with businesses and communities left paying the inflated costs.
• One common pattern is where a startup or founder will find itself in battle with a giant that can afford to sustain significant losses in one product stream using revenue from investors or other lines of business to stay afloat and driving out those smaller rivals that need all of their revenue streams to survive.
• This can be particularly salient in digital markets, where firms are incentivised to prioritise growth over profits in the short term to chase scale and cement dominance.
• However, experts highlight that predatory pricing is irrational, because after a firm priced below its cost to drive out competitors, new entrants would emerge to police any price hikes by the incumbent.
• Even if the firm succeeded in driving rivals out of the market through bleeding losses, the strategy would only be profitable if the firm could sustain those higher prices and nothing would stop the competitors from returning and eating into those profits once the predator firm raised prices again.

Seagrass conservation key to global biodiversity and climate targets, studies show

• A recent report published on February 28, 2025 ,University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and team shows that seagrass is declining worldwide due to human activities. 
• According to this review, seagrass has been declining at a rate of 1-2 per cent per year for the past century and nearly 5 per cent of species are now endangered.
• They say that safeguarding 30 per cent of seagrass by 2030 could protect over 750 fish species, store millions of tons of carbon and sustain coastal communities.
• Seagrass meadows are one of the most important but least appreciated ecosystems on Earth. They are better than trees for capturing carbon and providing food for millions of people.
• These underwater plants can store carbon up to 35 times faster than tropical rainforests, locking it away for thousands of years. Yet, their importance is not recognised by more popular conservation narratives like blue carbon initiatives.
• Additionally, they protect marine life and coastlines. Seagrasses grow in shallow coastal waters and serve as nurseries for fish, turtles and dugongs. They provide shelter for 121 threatened marine species and nearly 750 fish species, contributing to over 20 per cent of global fishery landings. 
• Beyond supporting marine life, seagrass also acts as a natural barrier, protecting coastal communities from storms and erosion. 
• India possesses a coastline that has been recalculated to span approximately 11,098 kilometers as of 2023-24, reflecting a 48 per cent increase from previous measurements.  Despite this extensive coastline, it accounts for less than 0.25 per cent the world''s total coastline.
• However, about 10 per cent of the world''s coastal population resides along India''s shores, underscoring the critical importance of these areas.
• India too has vast seagrass meadows, home to 16 species of seagrass with major concentrations in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands and the Gulf of Kutch. 
• A 2022 study estimated that India’s seagrass covers 516.59 square kilometres, with the ability to absorb 434.9 tonnes of carbon dioxide per sq km per year. This makes seagrass a powerful but underappreciated tool in climate action.
• Though there is no comprehensive study on the seagrass associated floral and faunal composition in the country, about 1,250 species of flora and fauna including endangered dugong and green turtles are reported from this fragile ecosystem. 
• We are losing biodiversity fast. A 2024 study, published in the , mapped seagrass along Tamil Nadu’s Manora coast using advanced acoustic technology and ground-truthing techniques. 
• The findings were alarming, while 46 per cent of the surveyed area had seagrass and seaweed cover, 54 per cent was just open seafloor. This means there’s a huge opportunity for restoration, but more importantly, we need to stop the destruction in the first place.
• Despite laws to protect coastal ecosystems, enforcement remains weak. Pollution from cities, industries, and agriculture continues to degrade these meadows, while coastal development and tourism put additional pressure on fragile habitats. 
• However, there is hope. Some countries have successfully restored seagrass by improving water quality, establishing marine protected areas, and launching conservation projects.
• Currently, 23.9 per cent of known seagrass areas are in marine protected zones, and nearly 2,000 restoration projects have been initiated worldwide, according to Duarte''s review. 
• For example, in Virginia in the United States, a large-scale project has successfully restored approximately 1,700 hectares of Zostera marina, leading to the recovery of associated invertebrate populations.
• In India, notable restoration initiatives have been undertaken. Between 2011 and 2020, researchers restored 14 acres of degraded seagrass areas in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, achieving a success rate of 85-90 per cent.
• Additionally, the Organization for Marine Conservation, Awareness and Research has been actively involved in community-based seagrass restoration projects in Palk Bay, employing eco-friendly methods such as bamboo frames and coconut rope to transplant seagrass sprigs.   
• Studies like the one in Manora provide crucial data for conservation planning. But work is needed on ground.
• Seagrass protection must become a national priority. It should be integrated into broader marine conservation policies with strict enforcement. Scientists, conservationists, policymakers and local communities must work together to safeguard these ecosystems for the future.

What is seagrass?

• Seagrasses are marine flowering plants, found on all continents except Antarctica. They have roots, stems and leaves and produce flowers and fruits.
• They are closely related to land plants, and probably evolved from land-living angiosperms (flowering plants) millions of years ago. The closest relatives to seagrass, on land, are the monocots – grasses, lilies and palms.

 Where are seagrasses found?

• Seagrasses are found along the coast, in clear, shallow waters that allow light for photosynthesis, to penetrate. Some species occupy the intertidal zone, the area between the highest tide line and lowest tide line, from which the sea retreats at low tide to expose the seabed. 

How many seagrass species are known?

• There are 72 different species of seagrasses in the world, belonging to four families. Compared to land plants, which have much higher rates of species diversity, the number is not high.
• India, being in the Indo-Pacific region, has high seagrass diversity: 14 species belonging to 7 genera. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait house all the 14 species found in India, while the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 8 and 9 species respectively.

How do seagrasses exchange gases with the surrounding water, i.e., ‘breathe’?

• Land plants have small pores on their leaves called stomata, through which they can take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen. Seagrasses lack stomata. Instead, they have a thin cuticle layer which allows gases and nutrients to diffuse directly into the leaves from the surrounding water.

How do seagrasses reproduce?

• The seagrass produces male and female flowers, much like its land-living cousins. Male seagrass flowers produce some of the biggest pollen known to the plant kingdom: up to 5 millimetres long.
• That’s smaller than the nail on your little finger, but rather large by pollen standards. Male flowers release pollen, usually covered by mucilage, into the surrounding water and depend on the water currents to carry them over to the female flowers.
• Some seagrasses are also known to recruit the help of tiny marine invertebrates like amphipods (tiny shrimp-like creatures) and polychaetes (marine worms) for pollination. The fleshy, buoyant seeds that form can float along and establish themselves in suitable seabeds to start off meadows of their own.

Highlights of the Report :

• Global Seagrass Decline: Seagrass meadows are globally declining at a rate of 1-2% per year over the past century with nearly 5% of species now endangered primarily due to human activities.
• Seagrass'' Role in Climate Action: Seagrass meadows store carbon up to 35 times faster than tropical rainforests playing role in climate change mitigation by sequestering large amounts of carbon dioxide & sustaining coastal ecosystems.

India''s Seagrass Ecosystems:

• India coastline spans approximately 11,098 km (48% increase from previous measurements) but accounts for less than 0.25% of world total coastline.
• Approximately 10% of world coastal population lives along India shores emphasizing the importance of its seagrass meadows.
• Seagrass meadows in India are found primarily in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Gulf of Kutch.
• 16 species of seagrass are found in Indian waters with major concentrations in the southern and western coastal regions.

Biodiversity of Seagrass Meadows:

• Seagrass meadows in India support about 1,250 species of marine flora & fauna including endangered species like dugong & green turtles.
• These meadows are also critical for marine life providing nurseries for fish, turtles, dugongs & contribute to 20% of global fishery landings.

Threats to Seagrass Meadows:

• Seagrass ecosystems face threats from pollution, coastal development & tourism particularly from agriculture runoff and urban waste.
• A study in 2024 by Balaji Vedharajan found that 54% of Tamil Nadu’s Manora coast is open seafloor with no seagrass cover highlighting an opportunity for seagrass restoration.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs):

• 23.9% of known seagrass areas are in marine protected zones globally offering protection from overfishing and habitat degradation.
• Expanding MPAs and stricter enforcement of marine protection laws are essential to safeguard seagrass meadows and their associated biodiversity.

Policy and Research:

• India’s coastal and marine protection policies like Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and National Marine Fisheries Policy focus on marine ecosystem conservation.

Recommendations:

• There is an urgent need to scale up restoration efforts with a focus on scientific research, community participation, policy enforcement.
• Strengthening coastal protection laws expanding marine protected areas & addressing pollution will be critical in halting the loss of seagrass meadows.
• Global Context and Success Stories:
• Around 2,000 restoration projects are ongoing globally with notable success stories like the restoration of 1,700 hectares of Zostera marina in Virginia, USA.
• India can draw lessons from such projects to accelerate seagrass recovery and better integrate seagrass conservation into climate action strategies.

Seagrass Species in India

• India''s seagrass meadows host 16 species of seagrass including species like Zostera marina, Halophila ovalis, Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii. These species are mainly concentrated in:
• Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu): Home to largest concentration of seagrass species in India especially Enhalus acoroides which is crucial for carbon sequestration.
• Palk Bay (Tamil Nadu): Contains seagrass beds that support diverse marine life.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands: These islands host important seagrass meadows that serve as key breeding grounds for marine species.
• Lakshadweep Islands: Rich in biodiversity & home to seagrass species such as Thalassia hemprichii & Halophila decipiens.
• Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat): Known for its biodiversity supporting various seagrass species though under threat from industrial activities.

Government Policies and Initiatives

• National Marine Fisheries Policy: Government of India has established National Marine Fisheries Policy which outlines strategies to protect marine ecosystems including seagrass meadows. The policy includes provisions for sustainable use of coastal resources, habitat restoration,  prevention of coastal degradation.
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): ICZM program is a flagship initiative aimed at managing coastal ecosystems and ensuring sustainable development along India’s coastline. It integrates environmental, social, economic concerns in managing the coastal zones including protection of seagrass meadows from urban development, pollution etc.
• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): India National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) includes National Mission for a Green India which recognizes importance of marine & coastal ecosystems like seagrass for carbon sequestration & climate change mitigation.

Key Recommendations for Seagrass Protection

• Strengthening enforcement of existing laws such as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification & Wildlife Protection Act will help curb illegal activities like construction in ecologically sensitive areas.
• Expanding & improving management of Marine Protected Areas to encompass more seagrass meadows could provide stronger protection against habitat destruction.
• Increasing use of advanced restoration technologies including genetic restoration to help recover degraded seagrass meadows at larger scale.
• Engaging local communities in conservation efforts particularly in seagrass restoration can improve the sustainability of protection measures & raise awareness of the importance of these ecosystems.
• More comprehensive scientific research on the ecological & socioeconomic value of seagrass is essential to inform policymaking & conservation strategies.

UN emergency aid fund releases $110 million for neglected humanitarian crises

• Amid deep cuts to global humanitarian funding, the UN’s Central Emergency Response Fund, CERF, on Thursday allocated $110 million to neglected crises across Africa, Asia and Latin America.
• One third of the CERF money will support Sudan and neighbouring Chad, which is home to many uprooted Sudanese.
• The funds will also bolster the aid response in Afghanistan, the Central African Republic, Honduras, Mauritania, Niger, Somalia, Venezuela and Zambia.
• Part of the allocation will go towards life-saving initiatives to protect vulnerable people from climate shocks, too.

 How does CERF allocate funds?

• As the UN’s global emergency fund, CERF allocates funds to support a specific humanitarian mandate through two windows: 
• Rapid Response: Supports timely response to new or deteriorating emergencies.
• Underfunded Emergencies: Supports critically underfunded humanitarian operations in overlooked crises.
• For all types of allocations, CERF provides recommendations to the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC) based on the best available quantitative data, qualitative information, analysis, and in-country and partner consultations. The ERC makes the final decision on behalf of the UN Secretary-General.

How are projects and recipients identified for a CERF allocation?

• An inclusive consultative process at the country level helps to identify the UN agencies and projects to be funded. These decisions are based on people’s urgent needs, as articulated by the UN Resident Coordinator/Humanitarian Coordinator (RC/HC) in a response strategy – developed in consultation with UN Country Teams/Humanitarian Country Teams and other humanitarian organizations under the leadership of RC/HCs. 

Who can become a member of the CERF Advisory Group?

• The Advisory Group’s membership needs to broadly represent the humanitarian community. 
• Members can be selected from a range of partners and stakeholders, including Member States and non-governmental organizations, for a single three-year term.  
• The following aspects are also taken into consideration:
• Demonstrated senior-level expertise and experience in responding to a range of humanitarian emergencies, and/or financial management.
• Knowledge of the UN system and its humanitarian and development activities. 
• Geographical and gender balance to ensure the Advisory Group can provide relevant political leadership.

How are the CERF Advisory Group members selected?

• We extend an invitation to Member States to nominate senior officials for the Advisory Group from within and outside their Government.
• When the nomination period ends, OCHA draws a list of names for the UN Secretary-General''s consideration.
• How are the CERF-funded projects monitored?
• UN agencies are responsible for all aspects of the projects they implement, either directly or through implementing partners, including their monitoring, and are accountable to their oversight bodies.

Does CERF fund cash and voucher assistance?

• In 2023, CERF supported the transfer of US$97.6 million in cash and voucher assistance to crisis-affected people, or 15 per cent of total funding (including $30.4 million in multipurpose cash) to 4 million crisis-affected people in 33 countries.

Does CERF fund responses to support people affected by extreme weather-related events caused by the climate crisis?

• CERF is a long-standing mechanism for responding to people affected by disasters, including extreme weather-related events.
• From 2006 to 2023, CERF directed more than a quarter – or $2.4 billion – of its funding towards responses to extreme weather-related events, such as droughts, floods, storms and heat or cold waves.  
• Unlike most funds, CERF-funded projects help the most vulnerable people affected by climate shocks in complex emergencies. At the same time, CERF provides fast and timely action that prevents the loss of life and destruction of livelihoods and promotes resilience.
• OCHA launched the CERF Climate Action Account at COP28 in 2023. The account offers donors a quick and efficient way to give CERF climate-relevant financing to support and incentivize life-saving actions that also reduce people’s exposure or vulnerability to future climate change shocks; to scale anticipatory action for predictable climate shocks; and to boost humanitarian responses to extreme weather-related events. 

 Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF)

•  The Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) is a humanitarian fund established by the UN General Assembly in December 2005 and launched in March 2006
• It is one of the fastest funding instruments available to help people affected by crises.
• CERF seeks to enable more timely and reliable humanitarian assistance to those affected by natural disasters and armed conflicts.

CERF’s objectives:

• i) To promote early action and response to reduce loss of life.
• ii) To enhance response to time-critical requirements.
• iii) To strengthen core elements of humanitarian response in underfunded crises.
• CERF’s rapid response window allows country teams to kick-start relief efforts immediately in a coordinated and prioritised response when a new crisis emerges. 
• The Emergency Relief Coordinator manages CERF on behalf of the UN Secretary-General and is supported by the CERF secretariat, which ensures that funds are allocated properly, disbursed in a timely manner, and that the use of funds is reported appropriately and transparently. 
• Since its creation by the UN General Assembly in 2005, and with generous contributions from 130 Member States and observers, as well as other donors including private individuals, CERF has assisted hundreds of millions of people with some $9.6 billion across more than 110 countries and territories. This includes $3.3 billion to underfunded crises. CERF has an annual funding target of $1 billion.
• CERF is the leading global humanitarian funding tool for responding to climate-related humanitarian emergencies. To strengthen this function, CERF launched its Climate Action Account at COP28, offering a quick, efficient and impactful avenue for climate-related humanitarian finance. 
•  It aims to assist the world’s most vulnerable communities facing the consequences of the climate crisis, including through anticipatory action and life-saving projects that also build people’s adaptation and resilience.

The rise, fall, and return of India’s tigers

• India successfully doubled its once-declining wild tiger population by 2022. A new study analyses population trends from 2006 to 2018 to understand key factors, including socio-ecological drivers, influencing tiger recovery and survival.
• Long-term population recovery depends on balancing conservation with economic incentives for local people, it finds.
• For centuries, the majestic tiger roamed vast landscapes across Asia. However, poaching, habitat destruction, and human encroachment drove these apex predators to the brink of extinction. By the early 2000s, global tiger numbers had plummeted to 3,600, occupying less than 10% of their historical range.
• Recognising the urgency of the crisis, tiger-range nations launched the Global Tiger Recovery Program in 2010, aiming to double wild tiger populations by 2022. India not only achieved this milestone but did so through science-driven policies, strong governmental commitment, and widespread public support. In the past two decades, tiger occupancy in the country has expanded by 30%.
•  Today, it is home to 75% of the world’s wild tigers (3,167 as of 2022), occupying approximately 138,200 km² of habitat.
• A recent study published now sheds new light on India’s tiger resurgence, analysing population trends, habitat connectivity, and key ecological factors influencing their survival. “In the past, conservation efforts focused primarily on tiger numbers, but we are now taking a broader view and examining population extents, connectivity, and the factors driving extinction and colonisation,” says, an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) senior scientist, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Habitat gains and losses

• As per the study, between 2006 and 2018, tigers reclaimed 41,767 km² of lost habitat in India. The most significant expansion occurred between 2014 and 2018, at an average annual increase of 2,929 km².
• India’s land-sparing and land-sharing strategies played a crucial role in this recovery. “Protecting core areas (land-sparing) ensures tiger populations remain at sustainable levels, while conservation efforts in buffer zones facilitate human-tiger coexistence (land-sharing).
•  This strategy also supports sink populations in stepping-stone habitats (tigers in small connecting habitats) and maintains genetic connectivity across landscapes, ensuring long-term recovery,” says, secretary general of the Global Tiger Forum, who was associated with Project Tiger, a national tiger conservation programme, for 35 years.
• This progress, however, was not without setbacks. Over a span of 12 years, local extinctions were recorded across 17,992 km², with the most severe declines (64%) occurring between 2006 and 2010. These were primarily driven by urbanisation, infrastructure development, and armed conflicts. Subsequent periods saw smaller losses — 17% of extinctions occurred between 2010 and 2014, and 19% between 2014 and 2018.
• Armed conflicts, in particular, have been a significant driver of local tiger population extinctions, contributing to 47% of these losses. “Tiger populations have suffered significantly in conflict zones,” .Reserves affected by Naxal conflicts include Chhattisgarh’s Indravati, Achanakmar, and Udanti-Sitanadi reserves, and Jharkhand’s Palamau reserve. Tiger habitats in Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and eastern Maharashtra, too, remain vulnerable, as per the study, with low tiger occupancy and a high probability of extinction due to ongoing insurgencies.
• Yet, encouragingly, in areas where conflicts have subsided, such as Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam (in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana), Amrabad (in Telangana), and Similipal (in Odisha), tigers have shown promising recovery, underscoring the undeniable link between political stability and effective wildlife protection.
• The study also identified significant recovery potential in Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand, spanning 10,000 km². However, extreme poverty and poaching remain major challenges in these areas. “Addressing poverty in these regions could play a crucial role in facilitating tiger recovery, as improved economic conditions often lead to better habitat protection and reduced poaching pressures,” .
• Habitat connectivity is another pressing concern. “Recovery is only possible when prey is abundant and connectivity through corridors is maintained,” explains Jhala. “The study shows that as the distance from corridors and core tiger habitats increases, the probability of colonisation declines.”
• Without well-connected landscapes, tiger populations remain vulnerable to isolation, limiting their long-term survival.

The human-tiger dynamic

• Tiger survival isn’t solely dictated by human population density. The study analysed 1,973 surveyed grid cells representing areas with confirmed tiger presence and found that 85% of India’s tigers reside in protected reserves, 4% in habitat corridors, and 11% in multiple-use landscapes, including agricultural fields outside protected areas.
• The findings show that while tigers thrive in prey-rich, human-free reserves, they also venture into adjacent habitats. In fact, as per the research, in newly recolonised areas, the average human density was 250 people/km², proving that conservation success depends more on economic incentives and coexistence strategies than simply minimising human presence.
• One striking example is Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan, where the local economy flourishes through tiger tourism in Ranthambore National Park. “Where economic incentives exist, people tolerate large carnivores in their neighbourhoods,”
• However, in regions where communities depend heavily on forests for survival, human-wildlife conflicts persist, increasing the risk of tiger extinctions.
• Balancing conservation with sustainable livelihoods is, therefore, crucial. Initiatives such as ecotourism, sustainable farming, and compensation programmes can align economic and ecological goals, transforming protected areas into hubs for biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. “Preventive and proactive measures — such as managing human-tiger conflicts, fostering community stewardship, and integrating efforts across multiple sectors — are essential for long-term success,

How reliable are tiger population surveys?

• India’s conservation journey took a pivotal turn in 2005, when tigers were declared locally extinct in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, despite official records listing 19 tigers. The national outcry that followed forced swift government action.
• “The Prime Minister appointed the Tiger Task Force in response to the crisis. The incident exposed serious flaws in outdated pugmark-based monitoring methods. As a result, India has now adopted modern techniques such as camera trapping, genetic analysis, and M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers: Intensive Protection and Ecological Status) to assist effective patrolling, assess ecological status and mitigate human-wildlife conflict in and around tiger reserves.
• “Today, M-STrIPES, used by 44,000 personnel, ensures data authenticity by geotagging every recorded tiger sign — whether pugmarks, scat, or scratch marks. You can’t sit in a tea shop and say you’ve surveyed an area.
• This technology has transformed tiger monitoring, enhanced conservation decisions, and minimised data falsification, ensuring more reliable and authentic findings.

Safeguarding a fragile victory

• Yet, despite significant gains, any dilution of conservation protections risks reversing decades of progress. “Tiger recovery is only possible where space and prosperity exist. Moreover, without core habitats, shared landscapes wouldn’t be viable,”
• As an umbrella species, tigers are vital to the health of entire ecosystems. Their habitats significantly overlap with those of Asian elephants (59%) and leopards (62%). Protecting tigers preserves biodiversity.
• Sustaining this success, however, demands ongoing investment in conservation policies, habitat protection, and economic incentives for local communities. “Tigers can coexist with humans if they have secure core populations nearby. But if development is not managed responsibly, extinctions will persist,”.

Could Europe’s Eutelsat help to replace Starlink in Ukraine?

• The stock price of Eutelsat, a Franco-British company, has more than quadrupled since the February 28 public showdown between Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and US President Donald Trump.

How crucial is Starlink to Ukraine?

• Starlink users access the Internet for data or voice communication by using a small satellite dish to bounce signals off a constellation of satellites overhead.
• Ukraine’s fixed-line and mobile networks have been badly damaged by bombing since Russia invaded in February 2022, and Starlink has helped Kyiv fill the void by sending tens of thousands of its dishes with terminals.
• Some are made available to civilians, often trying to contact relatives on smartphones. But most are used by Ukraine’s armed forces, which also have to contend with heavy signal jamming and interception of communications. Ukrainian units often talk to each other via Starlink, and its services have become virtually indispensable for battlefield command and control.
• Ukraine also used Starlink to guide attack drones until Musk’s rocket firm SpaceX curbed the practice two years ago.
• Initially, SpaceX helped to fund the provision of Starlink to Ukraine. The US government then took over, though last month Poland said it had been paying Ukraine’s Starlink subscription and would continue to do so.

Starlink:

• A satellite-based internet service developed by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, has helped battlefield command-and-control, drone operations (until restricted by SpaceX), and civilian connectivity for contacting relatives.
• There is an increasing concern about Ukraine losing access to Starlink—fuelled by geopolitical tensions, including a rift between the U.S. and Ukraine—have intensified investor focus on alternatives like Europe’s Eutelsat.

 Eutelsat

• Eutelsat, a Franco-British company, has seen its stock quadruple since late February 2025, partly due to its confirmed readiness to replace Starlink in Ukraine.
• Eutelsat’s CEO stated the company is considering deploying 40,000 terminals in Ukraine, equivalent to current Starlink usage.
• The move aligns with the EU’s broader push to strengthen defense ties amid reduced U.S. support, following disputes between former U.S. President Donald Trump and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy.

Strengths of Eutelsat

• Geopolitical Alignment: As a European entity, Eutelsat aligns with the EU’s strategy to reduce dependency on U.S. systems amid strained transatlantic relations.
• Coverage: Post-2023 merger with OneWeb, Eutelsat controls the only operational global LEO constellation outside Starlink, offering comparable coverage in Europe.
• Military Suitability: Eutelsat’s higher-altitude LEO satellites (1,200 km) and geostationary satellites provide stable connectivity, critical for military operations where signal reliability is prioritized over pure speed.

Elusive clouded leopard, marbled cat caught on camera in Assam’s Dehing Patkai

• Dehing Patkai, often called the “Amazon of the East,” is Assam’s only rainforest and home to an array of wildlife, including elephants, hornbills, and pangolins. But this biodiversity hotspot – the park is a tropical wet evergreen forest – faces threats like poaching and encroachment
• The marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata) is a small wild cat native from the eastern Himalayas to Southeast Asia, where it inhabits forests up to an elevation of 2,500 m. It has been listed as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List.
• aCamera traps are a crucial part of these efforts as they have been helping scientists track populations and assess habitat health
• a Usually, wildlife camera trap is a camera left at a location, rigged so that any approaching wild animal will automatically trigger the shutter release and take one or more photos or video sequences, without the photographer being present.

Marbled Cat:

• Scientific Name: Pardofelis marmorata
• Common Name: Marbled Cat
• Family: Felidae
• The Indian marbled cat is also known simply as the marbled cat.
• It is a small wild cat species native to South and Southeast Asia.
• It is closely related to the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) & the bay cat (Catopuma badia).

Marbled Cat Distribution

• This species is found in several countries : India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, & Laos.
• In India, marbled cats are mostly found in the forests of Northeastern states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, & Nagaland).

Features of the Marbled Cat

Size & Appearance:

• The marbled cat''s coat pattern is brown or grey, with black spots and stripes.
• This helps it to blend well with its forest surroundings.
• Males are generally larger and weigh between 4.5 & 9 kg, while females weigh between 2.5 & 5 kg.
• Climbing Ability : Marbled cats are excellent climbers, and they are able to leap from tree to tree with ease.

Behaviour:

• They are territorial & mark their areas using urine & scent marking.
• These cats are solitary animals. It means they spend most of their time alone.

The deadly proliferation of synthetic drugs is a major threat to public health and is reshaping illicit drug markets, says the International Narcotics Control Board

•  The rapid spread of illicit synthetic drugs is a deadly problem that presents a serious threat to public health says the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) in its 2024 Annual Report. INCB is calling for a comprehensive, coordinated strategy to counter illicit synthetic drug manufacture, trafficking and consumption including through better private-public partnerships.
• The INCB Report finds that the proliferation of synthetic drugs is fundamentally reshaping illicit drug markets and criminal actors are quick to exploit regulatory loopholes and generate new synthetic substances that are posing great harm to people.
• The President of INCB, , said: "The rapid expansion of the illicit synthetic drug industry represents a major global public health threat with potentially disastrous consequences for humankind. We need to work together to take stronger action against this deadly problem which is causing hundreds of thousands of deaths and untold harm to communities."
• In its analysis the INCB report looks at the evolution of synthetic drug manufacture, trafficking and use and identifies key trends and patterns. The report also shows how INCB''s initiatives and programmes are supporting Governments to address this challenge and makes recommendations to fill policy gaps in regulation that are being exploited by traffickers.
• With large numbers of fatal overdoses every year, synthetic substances are stronger in their potency and the duration of action than the plant-based drugs they mimic and demand for them is rising.
• Synthetic drugs are easily manufactured and trafficked with little technical or scientific knowledge needed and there is a reduced need for labour or land for cultivation unlike for plant-based drugs. The manufacture can be located anywhere and the same equipment can be used for different synthetic outputs. Traffickers can shift manufacture, movement and marketing tactics to keep operating costs down and profit margins up as well as to reduce risks of interdiction.
• "With rapidly emerging substances being used to illicitly manufacture synthetic drugs, it is a constantly moving target and criminal actors are staying ahead of regulatory mechanisms and often acting faster than enforcement agencies can keep up with
• As synthetic drugs are more potent, traffickers can send smaller consignments which are easier to conceal and sometimes use drones and other new trafficking techniques.
• Although global demand for plant-based drugs is still higher than the current supply of synthetic drugs seizures of synthetic substances have already begun to outpace seizures of some plant-based drugs.
• In addition to posing health risks to people who use them, highly toxic synthetic drugs can have increased safety risks because of dangerous manufacturing and trafficking processes and the dumping of chemical waste by illicit manufacturers can lead to environmental damage.

Actions and initiatives being taken to address synthetic drugs

• A series of initiatives developed by INCB is helping Member States to respond to the expanding trafficking in synthetic drugs and increasing  manufacture of and trafficking in the precursor and pre-precursor materials used in their illicit manufacture.
• Governments are using INCB''s various online platforms and tools to check the legitimacy or otherwise of suspicious consignments and to share actionable intelligence on the trafficking of non-medical synthetic opioids and chemical precursors.

Persistent inequities in access to pain relief medicines

• There is a persistent problem with the global availability of affordable internationally controlled medicines.
• Unequal access to these medicines is particularly a problem for East and South-East Asia, Central America and the Caribbean, and Africa where levels of consumption are insufficient to adequately meet the medical needs of the populations. South Asia continues to be the region with the lowest levels of licit consumption of opioid analgesics in the world.
• The problem is not because of a shortage of opiate raw materials with global supply exceeding the demand but rather the estimated requirements of several countries may not accurately reflect actual medical needs.
• The Board supports Governments to enhance their ability to estimate and assess their requirements for internationally controlled substances for medical and scientific purposes through INCB Learning which has been used by officials from 154 countries.
• To make pain management medicines more broadly available and more affordable, in particular in low- and middle-income countries, INCB is calling on opioid-manufacturing countries to increase manufacture.
• Ensuring access to internationally controlled substances for medical purposes during humanitarian emergencies caused by armed conflict remains a challenge that concerns the Board. In the report, INCB highlights special procedures that can be used to improve the situation.
• Emerging regional threats and trends
  The synthetic drugs market in Europe is likely to expand due to the looming deficit in heroin supply following the 2022 opium poppy cultivation ban in Afghanistan by the de facto authorities.
• The manufacture, trafficking and consumption of amphetamine-type stimulants is accelerating in the Middle East and Africa where there are limited drug treatment and rehabilitation programmes.
• Africa continues to be seriously affected by drug trafficking with evidence of an increase in cocaine use and associated harms in African countries, probably a spillover effect from transit of cocaine bound for Europe.
• Drug trafficking is hindering development in Central America and the Caribbean while the opioid crisis remains a serious challenge for countries in North America.
• While Peru recorded the first decrease in illicit coca bush cultivation in eight years, Colombia''s cultivation reached a new-all time high in 2023. In the European Union member States reported record amounts of cocaine seizures for the sixth year in a row.
• The illicit synthetic drug market in East and South-East Asia continues to grow.
• Large-scale shipments of cocaine and methamphetamine continue to be trafficked through the Pacific island States to Australia and New Zealand, and drug use in the Pacific island States is reported to be increasing.

Precursors report

• The precursors report identifies major trends in licit trade and trafficking of precursors. INCB continues to stress the crucial role of cooperation with the private sector as an effective strategy to prevent the diversion of and trafficking in chemicals and equipment used for illicit drug manufacture.
• Based on recommendations from INCB, two fentanyl precursors and two series of closely related designer precursors of amphetamine-type stimulants (16 substances in total) were added to Table I of the 1988 Convention by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. The scheduling decisions were the first-of-their-kind involving several closely related chemicals which could all be used in illicit manufacture in the same manner.
• Synthetic drugs are rapidly transforming the global drug trade, fuelling an escalating public health crisis, according to the annual report of the UN administered International Narcotics Control Board (INCB).
• Demand for synthetic drugs has sharply risen, alongside prescription opioid dependence and the falsified pharmaceutical drugs that have entered illicit markets. 
• Meanwhile, expanded access to online scientific literature and manufacturing materials, such as tablet presses, has further supported the ability of individuals to manufacture synthetic drugs efficiently.

Traffickers stay ahead of regulations

• Criminal groups are constantly adapting to evade law enforcement.
• By exploiting legal loopholes, they develop new synthetic compounds and use artificial intelligence to find alternative chemicals for drug production.
• New smuggling methods — including drones and postal deliveries — make these drugs harder to detect.
• As a result, seizures of synthetic substances are now outpacing those of traditional plant-based drugs like heroin and cocaine.
• Despite efforts to curb synthetic drugs, responses remain fragmented, allowing traffickers to stay ahead.
• The INCB is calling for stronger global cooperation, including partnerships between governments, private companies and international organisations, to disrupt supply chains and prevent harm.

Regional hotspots concerns

• The report identifies several regions where synthetic drug trafficking is expanding.
• In Europe, the looming heroin deficit following Afghanistan’s 2022 opium ban could push more users toward synthetic alternatives while in North America, despite efforts to curb the crisis, synthetic opioid-related deaths remain at record highs.
• The manufacture, trafficking and use of amphetamine-type stimulants are increasing across the Middle East and Africa, where treatment and rehabilitation services are often inadequate.
• Meanwhile, in the Asia-Pacific region, methamphetamine and ketamine trafficking continues to grow, particularly in the Golden Triangle.

International Narcotics Control Board (INCB)

•  The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) is the independent and quasi-judicial monitoring body for the implementation of the United Nations international drug control conventions. 
• It was established in 1968 in accordance with the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961.
• The functions of INCB are laid down in the following treaties:
• a) The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961
• b) The Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971.
• c) The United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988.
•  INCB consists of 13 members who are elected by the Economic and Social Council and who serve in their personal capacity, not as government representatives.
• INCB has a secretariat in Vienna that assists it in the exercise of its treaty-related functions. 
• The INCB secretariat is an administrative entity of UNODC, but it reports solely to the Board on matters of substance. 
• INCB closely collaborates with UNODC in the framework of arrangements approved by the Council. 
• INCB also cooperates with other international bodies concerned with drug control, including not only the Council and its Commission on Narcotic Drugs, but also the relevant specialised agencies of the United Nations, particularly WHO. It also cooperates with bodies outside the United Nations system, especially Interpol and World Customs Organisation.