The Golden Dome and India’s own Raksha Kavach – A new era of missile defence

• The world is witnessing a major technological arms race in missile defence, with countries seeking cutting-edge solutions to protect their skies from evolving threats.
• One of the most ambitious efforts in this regard is the United States’ development of the ‘Golden Dome,’ an advanced missile defence system designed to safeguard the nation against a wide range of missile threats, including hypersonic missiles.

What is the Golden Dome?

• The Golden Dome is a state-of-the-art missile defence system announced by US President Donald Trump during his congressional address.
• Drawing inspiration from Israel’s Iron Dome, which successfully defends against short-range rocket threats, the Golden Dome is aimed at providing comprehensive, nationwide protection against advanced ballistic, hypersonic, and cruise missiles.
• It will utilize a mix of space-based sensors, interceptors, and advanced communication networks to detect and neutralize threats at an early stage.
• In his address, Trump underlined the need to “build the most powerful military of the future,” and stated that the Golden Dome would be “all made in the USA.” The system’s unique combination of space-based interceptors and ground/naval defences will form a multi-layered shield, ready to tackle a broad spectrum of missile threats.
• The Golden Dome will include sophisticated capabilities to detect incoming missiles, calculate their trajectories, and deploy interceptor missiles to destroy them mid-flight. With the collaboration of industry giants like Lockheed Martin, it will use combat-proven technologies while integrating the latest innovations, ensuring that the US remains ahead of adversary missile technologies.

Golden Dome vs. Iron Dome: A Comparison

• While the Golden Dome shares similarities with Israel’s Iron Dome, the two systems serve very different purposes. The Iron Dome, which protects specific regions within Israel, is focused on intercepting short-range threats like rockets and artillery shells. On the other hand, the Golden Dome is a nationwide defence system designed to protect the entire United States from advanced missile threats, including those from space and hypersonic technologies.
• Technologically, the Golden Dome will integrate space-based sensors to track threats from great distances, making it a much broader and more sophisticated defence mechanism than the Iron Dome, which is limited in scope. While the Iron Dome uses ground-based radar and interceptors, the Golden Dome aims for a broader, layered defence network across the entirety of US airspace.

India’s Homegrown Defence Solution: Raksha Kavach

• India, not far behind in the race to enhance its missile defence capabilities, has developed its own advanced defence shield, known as “Raksha Kavach.” Built by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), this multi-layered protection system is designed to protect critical military assets, including soldiers, armoured vehicles, and defence complexes, against a variety of threats, much like Israel’s Iron Dome. This multi-layer protection was displayed at Aero India 2025.
• Raksha Kavach’s cutting-edge technology offers several layers of defence: ballistic, blast, and electronic protection. The system employs lightweight, durable nano-technology-based composite materials, ensuring high effectiveness and resilience. The system can be integrated into a wide range of applications, from personal soldier armour to vehicle protection, providing instant threat neutralization capabilities.
• One of Raksha Kavach’s key features is its ability to react immediately to incoming threats, utilizing advanced satellite-based surveillance systems, reconnaissance UAVs, and a range of air-defence technologies.
• The system includes features such as an air-to-air missile system, drone detection and interception systems, electronic warfare mechanisms, and a laser-based energy weapon. This integration of various technologies provides an unparalleled defence shield capable of neutralizing any airborne threats, even in the air itself, before they can reach their targets.
• This state-of-the-art system of Raksha Kavach will further strengthen India’s defence capabilities, which will effectively prevent enemy attacks.
• Along with the satellite-based surveillance system, there will be reconnaissance UAV’s, airborne warning and control system, air-to-air missile, advanced towed artillery gun system, drone detection, interception and destruction system, medium power radar Arudhra, light weight torpedo, Dharmashakti with electronic warfare system, laser-based energy weapon and short-range air defence system, indigenous secure satellite phone and assault rifle.

 The Future of Defence

• As the US and India both forge ahead with their respective missile defence systems, the global arms race for defence innovation becomes clearer. The development of the Golden Dome and Raksha Kavach reveals the growing importance of advanced technology in ensuring national security. These systems state the increasing reliance on multi-layered defence strategies that combine satellite surveillance, AI-driven interceptors, and cutting-edge communication networks.

 India-Belgium defence cooperation set to deepen: Focus on Light Tanks and Strategic Ties

• India and Belgium have deepened their defence collaboration, as both nations work to expand their strategic and economic relationship.
• During the ongoing Belgian Economic Mission to India, led by Princess Astrid, several key agreements were signed, including those in defence technology, military cooperation, and manufacturing partnerships.
• The focus on the Zorawar light tank for the Indian Army and other critical defence projects marks a milestone in bilateral ties.

The Zorawar Indian Light Tank

• One of the most important highlights of the defence cooperation is Belgium’s involvement in the Zorawar light tank, for the Indian Army. As has been reported previously by FinancialExpress.com, designed to operate in the challenging high-altitude terrains of the Himalayas, the Zorawar Indian light tank (ILT) is part of India’s strategy to modernize its forces and enhance capabilities in border regions.
• Belgium’s contribution to this tank is substantial, with the John Cockerill company supplying the 105mm gun turret for the tank.
• The turret is a critical component that enhances the Zorawar’s combat efficiency. Speaking about this contribution, Minister Francken said, “Belgium’s John Cockerill is playing a key role in supplying the 105mm gun turret, an essential component for the Zorawar tank.
• This project highlights our growing partnership with India in the defence sector.” The tank is developed for the Indian Army by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• In addition to the Zorawar tank, discussions during the visit also centered on expanding Belgium’s role in India’s defence procurement. Indian officials expressed strong interest in Belgian expertise in various sectors, including aerospace, manufacturing, and defence technologies.
• This joint venture will focus on manufacturing turrets for India’s new light tanks, particularly the ILT (Indian Light Tank), which is designed for deployment in extreme terrains. The joint venture is a significant step in bolstering India’s domestic defence manufacturing capabilities and aligns with the government’s goal of reducing reliance on foreign imports.
• The 60:40 joint venture is expected to bring advanced Belgian defence technology to India while helping to build local manufacturing capacity. 

Agreements and MoUs

• Alongside the joint venture, multiple agreements were signed between India and Belgian firms.
• Belgian defence giant Thales Belgium signed a contract to supply 70mm rocket systems for the Indian Army’s helicopters. Additionally, OIP, a technology company from Oudenaarde, is in talks to provide advanced sensors for the new light tanks being developed for India’s armed forces
• Defence Minister Rajnath Singh expressed India’s eagerness to integrate Belgian technologies into its military modernization efforts, welcoming Belgian investments in the Indian defence sector. Singh also underlined the importance of deepening defence industrial cooperation, urging Belgian companies to expand their footprint in India and work with Indian suppliers.
• Both sides have discussed ways to enhance bilateral defence industrial cooperation and agreed to explore the establishment of an institutionalized defence cooperation mechanism.
• This mechanism will serve as a framework for long-term strategic collaboration. According to the visiting Defence Minister Francken the framework is expected to be ready before the year ends. “Defence Minister Singh has been invited and a Letter of Intent is there which is like pre-MoU related to the defence industry.
• “Also, there will be a port call soon by a frigate of our navy and Indian ships have been invited to for our Navy Day,” the minister added.

Strategic and Economic Implications of Growing Ties

• The economic and strategic dimensions of the India-Belgium partnership are increasingly intertwined. As both countries strengthen their defence cooperation, they are also expanding collaboration in other areas, including clean energy, trade, and infrastructure.
• Belgium’s Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Maxime Prevot, emphasized the importance of this mission, saying, “Our mission to India presents an opportunity for Belgian companies to explore new markets, drive innovation, and create jobs back home, while contributing to India’s ambitious growth and modernization goals.

India’s forest and tree cover expands, now covering 25.17% of country’s geographical area

•  The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change on Thursday highlighted the ongoing efforts to protect and expand forest areas in India. The Forest Survey of India (FSI), located in Dehradun, has been conducting biennial assessments of the country’s forest cover since 1987. The findings of these assessments are published in the India State of Forest Report (ISFR).
• According to the ISFR 2015, the total forest and tree cover in India was recorded at 7,94,245 square kilometers, which accounted for 24.16% of the country’s geographical area. In the latest report, ISFR 2023, the forest and tree cover has increased to 8,27,357 square kilometers, which now represents 25.17% of India’s geographical area, marking a positive trend in the country’s efforts to conserve its forest resources.
• To ensure the protection and conservation of forests, the ministry issues advisories to state governments and Union Territories (UTs) to enforce the relevant laws and provisions.
• Various measures are also taken by state forest departments, including the surveying and demarcation of forest areas, the installation of boundary pillars, and regular patrolling by field staff to prevent encroachment and illegal activities.
• The government is also committed to supporting afforestation and forest conservation through financial and technical assistance to the states and UTs. Programs like the National Mission for a Green India (GIM), Development of Wildlife Habitats (DWH), and Nagar Van Yojana (NVY) provide funding for afforestation efforts. In addition, the states and UTs carry out afforestation under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), which focuses on ecological restoration and the rehabilitation of degraded forest areas.
• Over the past five years, the central government has released substantial funds to support these programs.
• The National Mission for a Green India (GIM) received Rs. 624.69 crore, the Development of Wildlife Habitats received Rs. 452.04 crore, and the Nagar Van Yojana was allocated Rs. 308.87 crore. Furthermore, an impressive Rs. 38,502.21 crore was disbursed under the Annual Plan of Operations under CAMPA.
•  These funds are directed towards various initiatives such as afforestation both within and outside forest areas, forest landscape restoration, habitat improvement, soil and water conservation measures, and overall protection and management of forests.

 PB-SHABD completes one year: Free subscription extended till March 2026 to support media organisations

• Prasar Bharati’s Shared Audio-Visuals for Broadcast and Dissemination (PB-SHABD), a 24/7 news hub, has completed one year since its launch in March 2024. The platform provides over 1,000 daily stories in more than 50 categories, delivering high-quality news content without logos in text, video, picture, and audio formats. It is supported by an extensive network of over 1,500 reporters, correspondents, and stringers, ensuring comprehensive coverage from across India.
• To further support media organisations, especially smaller ones, Prasar Bharati has announced that access to PB-SHABD will remain free until March 2026. This initiative is aimed at helping media outlets by providing them with ready-to-use, logo-free content, saving time and resources.
• PB-SHABD offers content across a wide range of news categories, such as agriculture, technology, foreign affairs, political developments, and more. The stories are uploaded in all major Indian languages, sourced from Prasar Bharati’s Regional News Units (RNUs) and headquarters.
• Media organizations can access this content through a simple registration process on the PB-SHABD portal.

Key Features of PB-SHABD

• The platform’s logo-free content comes with no requirement for crediting, making it a valuable resource for media outlets. PB-SHABD also features a live feed that offers exclusive coverage of live events, such as national events and press briefings, without any logos.
• To enhance access, the platform offers a Media Repository, an archival library where subscribers can find and access past news footage, along with specially curated content.
• Regular updates include special packages, interviews, daily weather updates from across India, and editorial pieces, ensuring that content is always fresh and ready for use. This reduces the time media organizations spend gathering content and allows them to focus on more critical reporting tasks.
• PB-SHABD’s broad range of content and features makes it an invaluable tool for news outlets, and Prasar Bharati encourages all interested organizations to sign up for the service. Media organizations can register by visiting [shabd.prasarbharati.org](https://shabd.prasarbharati.org) and following the easy registration process.
• This continued support will help strengthen the media ecosystem in India, especially for smaller media outlets that rely on access to quality content to serve their audiences.

ISRO undocks Spadex satellites, paves way for India’s lunar exploration

•  The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) announced  the successful completion of its SpaDeX mission’s space de-docking, marking a significant achievement in India’s journey towards advanced space exploration.
• Union Minister Jitendra Singh extended his congratulations to the ISRO team, stating that the “SpaDeX satellites accomplished the unbelievable de-docking,” adding that the milestone was “heartening for every Indian.”
• Singh highlighted the importance of the accomplishment, saying, “This paves the way for the smooth conduct of ambitious future missions including the Bharatiya Antriksha Station, Chandrayaan-4, and Gaganyaan.”
•  He also acknowledged Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s ongoing support for ISRO, which he said keeps the team’s “spirits soaring.”
• The undocking process involved a series of carefully coordinated steps, resulting in the successful separation of the SDX-01 (Chaser) and SDX-02 (Target) satellites. These satellites were launched on December 30, 2024, aboard the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)-C60 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
• Key maneuvers included the extension of SDX-2, the release of Capture Lever 3, and the disengagement of the Capture Lever in SDX-2. Following these maneuvers, the decapture command was issued in both satellites, successfully completing the de-docking.
• ISRO had previously achieved the docking of the two SpaDeX satellites on January 16, 2025, marking India’s entry into an elite group of countries—alongside China, Russia, and the United States—that possess space docking technology.
• The SpaDeX mission aims to demonstrate India’s capability in spacecraft rendezvous, docking, and undocking, which are crucial for future missions such as satellite servicing, space station operations, and interplanetary exploration.
• The SpaDeX mission is a cost-effective technology demonstrator for in-space docking, utilizing two small spacecraft launched by PSLV.
•  This technology is vital for India’s future space ambitions, including putting an Indian on the Moon, conducting sample return missions, and building and operating the Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS).
•  In-space docking technology is essential when multiple rocket launches are required to achieve common mission objectives.
• The SpaDeX spacecraft were designed and developed by the UR Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), with support from other ISRO centers including VSSC, LPSC, SAC, IISU, and LEOS.

RBI and National Centre for Financial Education (NCFE) have Launched Nationwide Campaigns to Boost Financial Literacy

• RBI and National Centre for Financial Education (NCFE) have launched nationwide campaigns to boost Financial Literacy programmes in the country. With a view to promote Financial Literacy, various Financial Literacy programmes have been initiated which are as under:
• Guidelines have been laid down for setting up Financial Literacy Centres (FLCs) by Lead Banks. The FLCs have been advised to conduct special camps for different target groups and banks have been regularly conducting special camps through FLCs;
• The multi-media, multilingual public awareness campaign, "RBI Kehta Hai" uses various mediums to promote financial literacy and educate the public on safe banking practices;
• Mass media campaigns are being organized to disseminate essential financial awareness messages to the general public covering all age groups;
• Recognizing the need to develop standardized content to meet the requirements of general audience for financial awareness on important banking aspects, RBI has developed Financial Awareness Messages (FAME) booklet wherein specific content has been prepared for various target groups including senior citizens.
• National Centre for Financial Education (NCFE) in collaboration with Centre for Financial Literacy (CFL) is regularly conducting Financial Education (FE) programmes targeting audience below 18 years and above 60 years. 
• Further, NCFE is formulating and implementing the National Strategy for Financial Education (NSFE) in consultation with the Financial Sector Regulators.
• The aim is to empower diverse segments of the population with the knowledge, skills, attitude and behavior necessary to manage their finances effectively and plan for a secure future, through various financial awareness programs and initiatives.
• NCFE has apprised that they have conducted 54 Financial Literacy programmes in the last three years for various target audience in North Eastern States where the feedback from participants after the programmes indicate that they have gained a clear understanding of financial literacy concepts, grievance redressal mechanism, and ways to safeguard themselves against financial frauds. 
• Further, RBI has apprised that a Pan-India Financial Literacy and Inclusion survey based on the OECD/ INFE (International Network on Financial Education) Toolkit was conducted in the year 2017 in 29 states and 5 Union Territories (excluding Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
• Under the survey, financial literacy was measured across three components namely financial knowledge, attitude and behaviour. 
• The National Centre for Financial Education (NCFE) has been set up as a Section (8) company under Companies Act, 2013 to undertake basic financial education and to develop suitable content for increasing financial literacy among the masses in the country. 
• NCFE prepares appropriate financial literature for target-based audiences on financial markets and financial digital modes for improving financial literacy so as to improve their knowledge, understanding, skills and competence in finance.

Key Initiatives:

1) Financial Literacy Centres (FLCs):

•  Guidelines have been established for setting up FLCs by Lead Banks.
• FLCs conduct special camps targeting various groups to promote financial literacy.

2) Public Awareness Campaigns:

•  ‘RBI Kehta Hai’: A multimedia, multilingual campaign to educate the public on safe banking practices.
• Mass Media Campaigns: Disseminate essential financial awareness messages to all age groups.

3) Financial Awareness Messages (FAME):

• RBI has developed the FAME booklet, providing standardised financial awareness content tailored for different target groups, including senior citizens.

4) National Strategy for Financial Education (NSFE):

• Implemented by NCFE in collaboration with financial sector regulators.
• Aims to equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, and behavior necessary for effective financial management and future planning.

5) Financial Education Programmes:

• NCFE conducts programmes targeting audiences below 18 years and above 60 years.
• In the last three years, 54 financial literacy programmes were conducted in northeast states, focusing on concepts like grievance redressal and fraud prevention

 Importance of financial inclusion and financial literacy

• Strengthening financial inclusion in the country has been one of the important developmental agendas of both the government of India and the four financial sector regulators — the RBI, Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI) and Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA). Financial inclusion is a national priority as it is an enabler for inclusive growth. 
• In the Indian context, financial inclusion is the process of ensuring access to appropriate financial products and services needed by vulnerable groups, such as weaker sections and low income groups, at an affordable cost in a fair and transparent manner by mainstream institutional players. 
• Financial inclusion provides an avenue to the poor for integrating with the formal financial system. 
• Financial literacy supports the pursuit of financial inclusion by empowering the customers to make informed choices leading to their financial well-being.
• Financial literacy is defined as a combination of financial awareness, knowledge, skills, attitude and behaviour necessary to make sound financial decisions and ultimately achieve individual financial well-being. 
• Financial education, on the other hand is defined as the process by which financial consumers/investors improve their understanding of financial products, concepts and risks and through information, instruction and objective advice, develop the skills and confidence to become more aware of financial risks and opportunities, to make informed choices, to know where to go for help and to take other effective actions to improve their financial well-being.
• The terms financial education and financial literacy are related concepts, but not the same. People achieve financial literacy through the process of financial education. The achievement of financial literacy empowers the users to make sound financial decisions which result in financial well-being of the individual.
• While financial inclusion is essentially a supply-side intervention, financial education is a demand side intervention. Apart from these forces operating on the demand side and supply side, there are also other enabling factors on the ground. 
• Achievement of financial well-being of citizens of any country depends on how well these factors and forces are integrated and the extent to which these work in cohesion.
• Financial literacy develops confidence, knowledge and skills to manage financial products and services enabling them to have more control of their present and future circumstances.
• Financial literacy will help in protecting society and individuals against exploitative financial schemes and exorbitant interest rate charged by moneylenders.
•  Financial education will help to avoid over-indebtedness, improve quality of services and make wise financial decisions.

Celebrating the legacy of women’s learning

•  The right to education has been a critical benchmark in assessing women’s empowerment. This year, the International Women’s Day theme, ‘Accelerate Action’, calls for actions that can advance gender equality. Empowering women in education, employment, and leadership roles are some of the means to overcome systemic hurdles and move towards gender equality and inclusive growth. 
• Besides, the year 2025 is also a pivotal moment as it marks the 30th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action – the foundational document on women’s and girls’ rights. These occasions offer an opportunity to recall the struggle of female revolutionaries for the cause of women’s education in India. 

Education and feminine domesticity

• Women’s education was one of the central areas of focus of the social reform movements that happened in pre-independent India. However, education was not envisaged as something that could radically alter women’s lives.
• Women’s education was supposed to reform the existing societal structures and processes, not dismantle or alter them.
• The curriculum for women’s education included domestic economy, cooking, needlework, moral education, and hygiene. Home science became an integral part of women’s education focussing on practical skills in food and nutrition management, home management, maternity and child welfare, clothing and textiles, and hygiene and preventive medicine.
• The objective of women’s education was to train them to become good wives and mothers, and socialise them into an ideal of feminine domesticity.  
• This development of domesticity was closely linked to the ideas of the nation and nationalism, especially in the context of colonial modernity. 
• The task of reforming the home had automatically rested on the ‘civilised’ and educated women. In addition, women’s education had become desirable to facilitate their participation in the freedom movement. 
•  Women were projected as cultural bearers of the nation and society. The ideal woman was imagined as a good blend of traditional virtues associated with domesticity and modern education.
• However, despite these broader societal expectations, there was notable regional variation in the enrollment of girls in schools during the pre-independent period. According to a report titled Progress of Education in India: Quinquennial Reports of 1922-27 and 1937-47 by the government of India, Madras (renamed Chennai in 1996) and Bengal had the highest rates of female enrollment. This could be attributed to the role played by social reformers as well as Christian missionaries in these regions. 

Struggle of female proponents for education 

• In the pre-independent times, several female revolutionaries struggled hard for the cause of women’s education, including Savitribai Phule, Fatima Sheikh, Pandita Ramabai, Chandraprabha Saikiani, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, Sarala Ray, Anasuya Sarabhai, and Abala Bose.
• These female reformers played a vital role in championing the cause of women’s education, and cut across caste, religion and region, indicating the diverse nature of the Indian women’s movement. The lasting influence of some of these figures is explored below. 

Savitribai Phule

• Savitribai Phule was a Dalit woman who challenged the upper caste hegemony of education through her reformist practices. 
• She opened India’s first school for girls in Vishrambag Wada, Pune, Maharashtra in 1848 along with her husband Jyotirao Phule. Her school was open to all castes. 
• Savitribai Phule not only promoted education for girls but also stood in opposition to existing social evils like untouchability and prohibition on widow remarriage. But her efforts were met with fierce resistance from society.
•  On her way to school, she was often pelted with stones and cow dung and obscenities were also hurled at her – primarily because she was educating girls, especially those from lower castes. However, this did not deter her. 

Fatima Sheikh and Pandita Ramabai

• Another notable figure, Fatima Sheikh, widely celebrated as India’s first Muslim woman educator, was an associate of Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule in Pune. Unfortunately, not a lot is known about her as there is a paucity of historical material.
•  This also indicates how women have often been marginalised in historical narratives. However, given the socio-cultural context of the time, one can argue that it must not have been easy to be a Muslim woman educator in pre-independent India. 
• Pandita Ramabai, from Mangalore (then Madras presidency but now part of Karnataka), was another social reformer who challenged the caste system by marrying a man from the lower caste.
• She was also a staunch advocate for women’s education and actively spoke out against the plight of widows, especially child widows, and child marriage. Ramabai founded the Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882 to promote women’s education, which was seen as instrumental in eradicating child marriage. 

Chandraprabha Saikiani

• Some other even lesser-known women educators in pre-independent India have been regionally very impactful. Chandraprabha Saikiani, a social reformer and active proponent of women’s education from Assam, is one such name. 
• A notable incident highlighting her commitment to women’s rights occurred at the Assam Sahitya Sabha session in 1925, where she talked about the importance of women’s education and their right to have the same opportunities as men.
• At the event, a barrier separated men from women, with women sitting behind the men. Saikiani urged the women to remove the barrier and sit alongside the men – a symbolic defiance showcasing her commitment to women’s rights and gender equality. 
• Saikiani received her early education at a boys’ school in her village Daisingari, where she attended classes with her sister.
• As such, she wanted other girls to have access to education as well. She demonstrated her commitment to the cause by starting a school for girls at the young age of 13, where she imparted whatever knowledge she had to other girls. 
• Her activism extended beyond education. At a large public gathering, she called for a ban on opium – an unusual act for a woman in that era when women speaking in public gatherings was unconventional. In 1926, Saikiani founded the Assam Pradeshik Mahila Samiti and dedicatedly worked for women’s education.

Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain and Sarala Ray

• The contributions of other figures like Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain and Sarala Ray to women’s education also deserve recognition. Begum Rokeya, born in Pairaband, Rangpur, Bengal (part of Bangladesh now), advocated for Muslim women’s education through her visionary women-centric writings. 
• Her most famous short story, Sultana’s Dream, imagines a gender-reversed society where women run the world and men are confined indoors. Having never been allowed to earn a formal education, she started schools for Muslim girls in Bhagalpur (1909) and Kolkata (1911). 
• Sarala Ray, an educator from Bengal, founded the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ School in 1920 in Kolkata, where all girls were encouraged to learn three languages – Hindi, Bengali and English – as part of the school’s innovative curriculum. Later, she extended her efforts towards women’s higher education and established the Gokhale Memorial Girls’ College in 1938. 

 Legacy of female revolutionaries

• While the above-mentioned women played a pioneering role in women’s education, their journeys were fraught with numerous challenges. For instance, enrollment and retention of girls in schools was one of the primary challenges, which was often exacerbated by the absence of proper sanitation facilities.
• In many regions, menstruation is seen as a state of impurity and requires girls to be absent from public spaces during their menstrual cycle.
• Due to such reasons, parents were often hesitant to send their daughters to school. Additionally, prepubertal marriages were also prevalent and because of this many girls were withdrawn from school before reaching puberty. 
• Another barrier was the purdah system, which restricted the mobility of Muslim and upper-caste women and contributed to their exclusion from educational opportunities. Women like Savitribai Phule and Begum Rokeya also faced caste- and religion-based opposition to educating marginalised communities. Moreover, parents were often reluctant to send their daughters to the co-educational schools established by the British government. 
• Nonetheless, the female revolutionaries demonstrated immense courage and resilience in their fight for women’s education. They broke social barriers and paved the way for women’s access to education in India.
• Their effort laid the foundation for women’s empowerment and inspired generations of women to pursue education. 
• But despite the strides made in women’s education, women continue to be discriminated against in educational institutions evident in their lower enrollment and retention rates. Women also face violence and harassment in both primary and higher educational institutions. In this context, the legacy of these revolutionary women remains relevant. 

India’s water diplomacy: Balancing regional cooperation and strategic interests

• China’s plan to build the world’s largest dam on the Brahmaputra River is a case in point, raising serious concern for India as a lower riparian state. The situation highlights the need for revisiting water-sharing agreements and analysing the complexities of water diplomacy not only between India and China but also with other neighbouring countries, including Pakistan
• Transboundary rivers, such as the Brahmaputra River and the Indus River, are crucial determinants of regional stability, and effective water diplomacy is vital for promoting cooperation and mitigating conflict over shared resources.
• The Helsinki Rules of 1966 on the “Uses of the Waters of International Rivers” provide guidelines for the use of transboundary rivers.
•  Let’s examine some of India’s water-sharing treaties with its neighbouring countries.

Indus Waters Treaty

• The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) has been in the news recently in relation to Pakistan’s objections to the design features of India’s two hydroelectric projects –  the Kishenganga and the Ratle hydroelectric projects – in Jammu and Kashmir. 
• The IWT was signed by India and Pakistan on September 19, 1960, to determine the distribution of the waters of the Indus and its tributaries. It was brokered by the World Bank and signed in Karachi by then Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and then Pakistan President Ayub Khan.
• The IWT established a framework which enabled the equitable administration of the Indus River system regardless of political tensions that grew between India and Pakistan.
• The terms of the treaty gave India full control of the eastern basin rivers including Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej whereas Pakistan received exclusive access to western basin rivers namely Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab while allowing Indian facilities for “non-consumptive usage” such as hydroelectric power productions. 
• The “Permanent Indus Commission” is an essential element of the treaty through which both sides share data while forming part of an established three-step dispute resolution framework.
• The two remaining provisions allow disputes to be resolved through a Neutral Expert while the Court of Arbitration represents another dispute resolution mechanism. 
• In relation to the differences between India and Pakistan over the former’s two hydroelectric projects, the Neutral Expert appointed by the World Bank under the terms of the treaty decided that he is “competent” to adjudicate on the differences regarding the design of two projects, vindicating New Delhi’s long-held position.
• In the more than six decades of the treaty’s existence, India first issued notice to Pakistan in January 2023 seeking “modification” of the treaty. The notice was issued in response to Islamabad’s continued “intransigence” in implementing the IWT by raising repeated objections to the two projects. 

India-Bangladesh water-sharing agreements

• India and Bangladesh share 54 rivers. To effectively address issues of mutual interest on common/border/trans-boundary rivers, the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) began its operations in 1972 as a bilateral mechanism. 
• During the monsoon season, the Water Resources Ministries of India and Bangladesh collaborate through the commission to oversee flood forecasting along with water distribution across the main transboundary rivers, including Ganga, Teesta, Brahmaputra and Barak.
• A major development in this bilateral cooperation occurred when the Ganga Water Treaty was signed on December 12, 1996 by the then Indian Prime Minister H D Deve Gowda and his Bangladeshi counterpart Sheikh Hasina.
• The treaty ensured the fair sharing of river water after the construction of the Farakka Barrage. During Hasina’s last visit to India in June – weeks before her regime was toppled in August 2024 – the two sides announced that technical negotiations had begun for the renewal of the 1996 Treaty.
•  The treaty is up for renewal in 2026 after the completion of the technical dialogues. 
• The Teesta water-sharing treaty is another key bilateral agreement between the two countries. However, talks on the agreement remained stuck since 2011 because West Bengal’s Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee continues to oppose the negotiations. 
• The Teesta water-sharing issue is a point of contention between the two countries. Bangladesh depends significantly on Teesta’s water for agriculture and consumption, while Mamata Banerjee had pointed out that if Teesta’s water is shared with Bangladesh, lakhs of people in north Bengal will be severely affected. 
• Although the Ganga Water Treaty has been successful, the water flow reduction along with India’s dam construction continues to be an ongoing point of contention between the two countries. Despite this, the treaty has been seen as a model in transboundary water management. 

Water-sharing arrangement between India and Nepal

• The water cooperation between Nepal and India started under British India in 1894 even before Nepal and India officially engaged as independent nations.
• The Sarada Agreement marked the beginning of formal water-sharing agreements between the two countries. The treaty allowed the construction of the Banbassa barrage on the Mahakali River (also known as Sarada in India) to provide irrigation facilities to both countries. 
• Nepal obtained the right to use a minimum of 1000 cubic feet per second (cusecs) in the summer season and a maximum of 150 cusecs of water during the winter season from the Sarada Canal. However, Nepal began maximising these resources through the Mahakali Irrigation Project only after its completion in 1997.
• The Koshi Agreement of 1954 facilitated the construction of the Hanuman Nagar flood control barrage, but Nepal requested amendments in 1966 because of concerns over sovereignty and unsatisfactory irrigation yields. Similarly, the Gandak Agreement underwent amendments in 1964 after its original signing in 1959 to allow India to construct the Bhaisalotan Barrage. However, Nepal struggled to achieve the expected water delivery. 
• Under the Mahakali Treaty of 1996, multiple agreements were combined to establish the Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project for power generation and flood control benefits. The water-access concerns of Nepal remain unresolved because implementation delays and political challenges delayed project execution.

India-Bhutan hydropower cooperation

• It is understood that one of the strongest pillars of the India-Bhutan ties is the development of hydropower which began in 1961 when both countries started working together on the Jaldhaka Project. However, in 1987 the 336 MW Chukha Hydropower Project entirely funded by India on a 60:40 grant and loan basis came into operation and remained a milestone for both the countries. 
• The project established a precedent for subsequent projects, including the 1,020 MW Tala Hydroelectric Project, which is ranked as one of the biggest joint ventures. It also used the same funding mechanism.
• Bhutan’s rivers such as the Wangchu, Sankosh, and Manas have huge potential for the production of hydropower and India played a major role in the development of the hydropower industry of Bhutan. The agreement between India and Bhutan was formalised with the “2006 Agreement on Hydropower Cooperation”. 
• India and Bhutan signed an agreement in 2008 for the doubling of the capability for the production of hydropower from 5,000 MW to 10,000 MW by 2020. Punatsangchu I with 1,200 MW and Punatsangchu II with 1,020 MW are the ongoing projects. The 600 MW Kholongchhu Project was commissioned in 2020. 
• Hydropower contributes significantly to Bhutan’s economy, accounting for 63% of the country’s total exports. It also fulfils the power requirements for India. The Wangchu, Sankosh, and Manas rivers of Bhutan hold immense potential for the production of hydropower, and India played a major role in the industry’s development.

India’s strategy in regional water diplomacy

• Thus, India’s strategy for water diplomacy so far strikes a balance between regional cooperation and national interests. New Delhi’s dedication to planned water sharing mechanisms is demonstrated by treaties such as the Indus Waters Treaty, the Ganga Treaty, and the Mahakali Treaty.
• India’s position as an upstream state –  in all the above cases – has not always translated into clear advantages or leverage.
• Contrastingly, China’s reluctance to adhere to international regulations on water-sharing arrangements, as illustrated by the way it manages the Mekong River, complicates the matter. 
• Such behaviour is consistent with the idea of hydro-hegemony where a dominant state in a shared river basin leverages its riparian position, economic and military power, and technological capabilities to assert control over water resources.
• Given these challenges, New Delhi needs to bolster its diplomatic efforts to negotiate fair water-sharing arrangements with Beijing and strengthen existing frameworks with its neighbours in order to maintain a stable regional order.

Rivers in peril: How pollution endangers India’s water lifelines

• Water at several locations in Prayagraj during the recently concluded Maha Kumbh did not meet the primary bathing water quality standard due to high faecal coliform levels, a report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) dated February 3 informed the National Green Tribunal (NGT).
• However, in a new report submitted to the tribunal on February 28, the CPCB said statistical analysis showed that the water in the Ganga at Triveni Sangam in Prayagraj was fit for bathing during the Maha Kumbh.
• The reports draw attention to the broader issue of river pollution in India, which is worsening with rapid urbanisation and industrial growth.
•  River pollution affects public health and causes ecological degradation, affecting biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems. The situation highlights the urgent need to address river pollution and restore rivers to their past glory. 
• Notably, India is one of the first nations to recognise rivers as “living people”. Despite this, water bodies in the country continue to face severe pollution issues. Let’s explore the major reasons behind river pollution, analyse statistics, and explore the way forward.   

What data says 

• Under the National Water Quality Network, the CPCB, in association with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees (PCCs), carries out periodic assessments to assess the water quality of different water sources. Any location/stretch of the river having a Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of more than 3mg/l is identified as polluted and unsuitable for outdoor bathing. BOD is a key indicator of water quality. It measures the oxygen needed to break down organic matter. 
•  In one of its reports released in 2022, the CPCB identified 311 polluted river stretches on 279 polluted rivers in India. It found 46 river stretches with a BOD concentration of more than 30 mg/L, which indicates a high level of organic pollution in the water and makes it toxic not only for human consumption but also for aquatic life. 
• The state of Maharashtra has the highest number of polluted stretches (55). However, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (6 each) have the most highly polluted stretches. The Cooum River of Tamil Nadu has the most polluted stretch with a BOD of more than 345.0 mg/l. 
• Similarly, the annual report of the CPCB (2022-2023) released in September 2024 reveals that during a Manual Monitoring carried out at 97 locations in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, it was found that at 52 locations, fecal coliform (FC) was more than 2500 MPN/100 ml. FC is an indicator of sewage contamination. 

Major causes of river pollution 

• The Supreme Court in January this year said that tanneries in Tamil Nadu’s Vellore district have caused “irreversible damage to the waterbodies, groundwater and agricultural lands” by discharging untreated or partially treated effluents into the Palar River. The top court termed it as ‘ecocide’. The case highlights the severe impact of industrial pollution on water bodies.
• However, industrial effluents are one among several other reasons behind river pollution. Some of them are discussed below. 
• Untreated sewage: Among all the anthropogenic sources, untreated sewage remains the primary reason behind river pollution in India. According to the CPCB, more than 60% of untreated sewage water is released into rivers daily, which makes the water unsafe and creates serious problems for the local population and aquatic ecosystem. 
• Untreated industrial effluents: After untreated sewage, untreated industrial effluents are a major cause of river pollution. Industries such as those producing chemicals, sugar, paper, and tanneries generate wastewater that contains toxic chemicals, which poses serious risks and potentially fatal consequences in some cases.
• Municipal solid waste: Another major factor is municipal solid waste. Due to inadequate waste management facilities and ineffective enforcement of waste management regulations, millions of tons of solid waste are dumped directly into water bodies every year. It not only impedes river flow but also damages the aquatic ecosystem. 
• Agricultural runoff: Agricultural runoff further contributes to river pollution. It contains pesticides and fertilisers, which introduce toxic chemicals into the water. The nutrients like nitrogen in the runoff can also cause eutrophication – a process that depletes oxygen in the water and thereby increases the BOD of the river. 
• Sand mining and illegal encroachment: Furthermore, sand mining and illegal encroachment are also becoming significant contributors to river pollution. These activities disrupt the natural flow of rivers, increase the risk of flooding in local areas, and add to river pollution due to inadequate waste management facilities

 Legal framework and policy response 

• The primary legislation related to water pollution in India, including river pollution, is the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, which establishes the CPCB as the central unit for planning and regulating environmental matters and SPCB as a state-level major institution with the responsibility to enforce environmental standards. 
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, levies a cess on water consumed by certain industries to fund pollution control activities. In 1986, the Environment Protection Act was enacted, which is an umbrella legislation on the environment. Under this Act, the Environment (Protection) Rules were notified by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in November 1986. These rules lay down standards for industrial discharge. 
• To deal with the problem of waste, the government also notified several rules on waste management, including rules on solid waste, biomedical waste, E-waste waste, etc.
• The National Water Policy, 2012, also highlights the need to safeguard water bodies by addressing pollution stemming from poor sanitation and insufficient sewage treatment facilities. 
• However, due to weak enforcement mechanisms and the lack of coordination among various agencies, legal interventions often fail to effectively control river pollution. It underscores the need for comprehensive and well-coordinated initiatives to address the issue. In this context, the government has implemented several river rejuvenation programmes.

River rejuvenation programmes

• The government of India has executed several river rejuvenation programmes over the years. The most noteworthy is the Ganga Action Plan (GAP), which was launched in 1985. It was implemented in two phases, with a primary focus on sewage interception and treatment facilities. 
• In 1996, the plan was merged with the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP). 
• Till 2014, Rs. 20,000 crores had been spent to achieve the objectives of the GAP, but it achieved limited success due to various reasons, including its limited coverage, mismanagement of funds, inappropriate technological choice, etc. Along the same lines, the Yamuna Action Plan was launched in 1993. It was implemented in three phases but met with challenges similar to GAP.  
• In 2014, the Namami Gange Programme (NGP) was launched, which superseded the GAP. NGP is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). It adopted a holistic approach and has made considerable progress on the issue of sewage treatment facilities, but issues like illegal encroachments, poor industrial compliance, and waste dumping continue to persist on a large scale.  
• Moreover, till December 2024, only ₹19,271 crores have been spent under the programme, which is less than half of the amount originally set to be utilised by 2026. 

 Way forward

• Despite decades of legal efforts and policy interventions, river pollution in India continues to be a pervasive problem. The rejuvenation programmes have made some progress. Encouraging community participation by creating awareness and fostering behavioural changes in matters related to waste creation and management might help.
• Furthermore, with the ever-changing nature of pollutants, the preventive and controlling measures require to be updated accordingly. Advanced technology, including Artificial Intelligence, may be harnessed for real-time monitoring and waste management.  
• Rivers are self-cleansing entities to a certain extent. To ensure their natural flow, it is essential to curb issues such as extensive river sand mining and encroachments. Also, there is a need to strengthen the coordination among pollution control authorities along with the collaboration between government, industries, and local population.  
• India’s rivers need to be restored to their natural glory, which is possible only through urgent and coordinated actions by all the stakeholders.