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Anti-Defection Law: Between Political Stability and Legislative Accountability
GS II Polity
Why in News?
Continued instances of party switching, delayed disqualification proceedings and disputes over the role of the Speaker have renewed debate over the effectiveness of India''s anti-defection framework.
Constitutional Framework
- The 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985 inserted the Tenth Schedule into the Constitution to combat political defections.
- The law applies to members of Parliament and State Legislatures under Articles 102(2) and 191(2).
Grounds for Disqualification
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Category
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Provision
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Voluntary resignation from party membership
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A member is disqualified if they voluntarily give up membership of their political party.
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Violation of party direction
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Voting or abstaining contrary to a party direction without prior permission can attract disqualification if the party does not condone it within 15 days.
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Independent member
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An elected independent member becomes disqualified if they join a political party after election.
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Nominated member
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A nominated member may join a political party within six months of taking their seat; joining thereafter attracts disqualification.
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91st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003
The amendment sought to close loopholes in the original anti-defection framework.
- Removed the one-third split exception, which had previously protected a faction breaking away from a political party.
- Retained the merger exception where at least two-thirds of the members of the legislature party agree to the merger.
- Limited the size of the Council of Ministers to 15% of the total strength of the legislature.
- A person disqualified under the Tenth Schedule is restricted from holding certain remunerative political offices.
Structural Problems
- Speaker as Adjudicator : The Speaker/Chairman decides disqualification petitions, raising concerns about neutrality. In Subhash Desai (2023), the Supreme Court stressed the need for fairness and impartiality.
- Delay in Decision Making: The Tenth Schedule lacks a fixed statutory deadline. In Keisham Meghachandra Singh (2020), the Supreme Court indicated that three months is ordinarily a reasonable period, subject to exceptional circumstances.
- Merger Provision: The two thirds merger exception may create scope for largescale defections to be presented as organisational mergers.
- Resignation Route: Resignation followed by re election can provide an alternative route for legislators seeking to change political allegiance, creating tension between the right to resign and anti defection objectives.
- Whip vs. Legislative Deliberation: A broad whip may restrict independent legislative debate, creating a balance between party discipline and government stability on one hand, and legislative independence and deliberation on the other.
Judicial Safeguards
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Case
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Key Principle
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Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992)
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Upheld the broad constitutional validity of the Tenth Schedule while allowing judicial review of the Speaker''s decision.
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Keisham Meghachandra Singh v. Speaker (2020)
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Emphasised the need for timely adjudication of disqualification petitions.
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Subhash Desai v. Principal Secretary, Governor of Maharashtra (2023)
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Reaffirmed the Speaker''s role as the constitutional adjudicating authority and emphasised fair, independent and impartial decision-making.
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Bhagat Singh: Revolutionary Nationalism and Intellectual Radicalism
GS-I – Modern Indian History
Why in News?
The birth anniversary of Bhagat Singh was observed on 28 September, recalling his role in India’s revolutionary movement and his influence on the political consciousness of youth.
Key Facts
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Aspect
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Details
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Born
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28 September 1907, Banga, Punjab region
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Organisation
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Naujawan Bharat Sabha
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Revolutionary Associations
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Hindustan Republican Association (HRA); later Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
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Major Case
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Lahore Conspiracy Case
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Major Writings
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Why I Am an Atheist; Letter to Young Political Workers
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Martyrdom
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23 March 1931
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Along with
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Rajguru and Sukhdev
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Organisation
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Period & Leaders
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Key Features
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Naujawan Bharat Sabha (NBS)
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1926; associated with Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Sohan Singh Josh
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Youth organisation founded in Lahore to promote anti-colonial nationalism, secularism and political consciousness among young Indians.
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Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)
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1924; key founders included Sachindranath Sanyal, Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee and Ashfaqulla Khan
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Revolutionary organisation that sought to establish an independent republican India through revolutionary action.
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Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
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1928; associated with Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sukhdev, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and others
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Reorganisation of the HRA with a stronger socialist orientation; aimed at ending colonial rule along with broader social and economic exploitation.
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Five New Additions to India’s UNESCO Tentative List
GS I Art and culture
Why in News?
Five properties have been added to India’s UNESCO Tentative List in 2026:
- Bagh Cave Paintings
- Group of Temples of the Chambal Valley
- Udaigiri Caves
- Ginnorgarh Fort
- Sites of Satyagraha
What is a UNESCO Tentative List?
A Tentative List is an inventory of properties that a State Party considers suitable for future nomination to the UNESCO World Heritage List under Article 11 of the World Heritage Convention, 1972.
Key Sites
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Property
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Location
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Historical Context
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Key Features / Significance
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Bagh Cave Paintings
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Madhya Pradesh
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Developed during the 4th–6th centuries CE, broadly corresponding to the later Gupta period. The caves served as Buddhist monastic and religious centres.
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Famous for murals comparable with Ajanta; paintings were executed in tempera on dry, lime-primed mud plaster. Rang Mahal (Cave 4) is particularly important.
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Group of Temples of the Chambal Valley
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Madhya Pradesh
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Represents the development of medieval temple architecture in the Chambal region and reflects the continuity of the Nagara architectural tradition.
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Includes Bateshwar, Padavali and Kakarmath. Bateshwar is notable for its large group of sandstone shrines.
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Udaigiri Caves
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Madhya Pradesh
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Primarily associated with the Gupta period, particularly the reign of Chandragupta II. The complex reflects the growing prominence of Hindu religious imagery alongside Jain traditions.
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Famous for the monumental Varaha relief of Vishnu. Contains Hindu and Jain remains; Cave 20 has Jain iconography and an inscription linked with Kumaragupta I.
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Ginnorgarh Fort
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Madhya Pradesh
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Associated with the history of Gond political power in central India and reflects the strategic importance of fortified hill settlements.
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Located within Ratapani Tiger Reserve. Contains fortifications, palatial remains, stepwells and water structures.
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Sites of Satyagraha
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India & South Africa
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Represents the historical evolution of Gandhian Satyagraha, beginning with Gandhi''s political experiments in South Africa and later developing into a major instrument of India''s national movement.
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Transnational heritage proposal including Pietermaritzburg Station, Phoenix Settlement, Sabarmati Ashram, Mani Bhavan, Sevagram, Aga Khan Palace and Gandhi Smriti.
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Forest Restoration and COFO-28
GS-III – Environment
Why in News?
India highlighted its forest and landscape restoration initiatives at the 28th Session of the FAO Committee on Forestry (COFO-28), drawing attention to the role of forests in addressing climate change, biodiversity loss, land degradation and rural livelihood challenges.
What is COFO?
The FAO Committee on Forestry (COFO) is the Food and Agriculture Organization''s principal global intergovernmental forestry body.
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Parameter
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Key Fact
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Full Form
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FAO Committee on Forestry
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Established
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1971
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Parent Organisation
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Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
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Nature
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Global intergovernmental forestry body
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Frequency
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Biennial
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Headquarters
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Rome, Italy
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Core role
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Reviews global forestry issues and guides FAO''s forestry-related work
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Why is Forest Restoration Important?
- Biodiversity Conservation : Restoration can reconnect fragmented habitats and improve ecological conditions for native species.
- Carbon Sequestration : Healthy forests and restored landscapes absorb and store atmospheric carbon, contributing to climate mitigation.
- Land Degradation Neutrality : Restoration of degraded forests, grasslands and other landscapes can help prevent further land degradation and recover ecosystem productivity.
- Rural Livelihoods : Forests provide communities with fuelwood, non-timber forest products, fodder and other ecosystem services.
- Climate Adaptation : Restored ecosystems can improve resilience to droughts, floods, heat stress and changing rainfall patterns.
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India’s Water Storage Position
GS-I – Geography | GS-III – Agriculture
Why in News?
Storage levels in India’s 178 major reservoirs were reported at around 70% of their total live storage capacity, remaining below the decadal average. The situation highlights the importance of reservoir management amid variations in monsoon rainfall and rising water demand.
Why Reservoir Storage Matters
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Sector
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Impact of Low Reservoir Storage
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Irrigation
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Can reduce water availability for agricultural operations, particularly the Rabi season
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Drinking water
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Increases pressure on urban and rural drinking-water supplies
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Hydropower
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Lower reservoir levels can constrain hydropower generation
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Industry
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May affect water-intensive industrial activities
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Rabi agriculture
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Adequate storage is important for irrigation after the monsoon
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Drought resilience
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Lower carry-over storage reduces the buffer against rainfall deficits
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Core Concern: Rainfall Variability
The challenge is not determined only by total annual rainfall.
- India can receive adequate or even above-normal seasonal rainfall while still experiencing water stress because of:
- Uneven spatial distribution of rainfall.
- Long dry spells between rainfall events.
- Intense rainfall producing runoff rather than groundwater recharge.
- Different rainfall patterns across river basins.
- Increasing water demand from agriculture, cities and industry.
Structural Concerns
- Agricultural dependence: Agriculture remains a major consumer of freshwater, particularly in regions dominated by water-intensive crops.
- Groundwater–surface water disconnect: Reservoir management alone cannot address declining groundwater levels.
- Climate variability: Changing precipitation patterns can make historical hydrological averages less reliable for planning.
- Inter-state dimension: Major river basins cross state boundaries, making coordinated reservoir and basin management important.
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India''s Path to Full Literacy
GS II – Education
Why in News?
India has made significant progress in literacy since Independence. The overall literacy rate increased from 18.33% in 1951 to 74.04% in 2011.
What is Literacy?
Literacy traditionally refers to the ability to read and write with understanding. In the contemporary context, however, effective literacy also requires the ability to:
- Read and comprehend information.
- Apply basic numeracy in everyday life.
- Use digital technologies safely and effectively.
- Understand basic financial information.
- Identify, evaluate and use information critically.
India''s Literacy Transformation
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Dimension
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Progress / Issue
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Significance
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Overall literacy
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Increased from 18.33% (1951) to 74.04% (2011)
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Reflects expansion of mass education
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Female literacy
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Increased substantially since Independence
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Improved women''s participation in education and socio-economic life
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Gender gap
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Declined considerably but has not disappeared
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Indicates continuing inequalities in educational access and outcomes
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Rural literacy
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Expanded significantly but remains below urban levels
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Highlights regional and infrastructure disparities
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Higher education
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Gross Enrolment Ratio has increased over time
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Supports India''s transition towards a knowledge-based economy
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Digital literacy
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Increasingly important with digital delivery of services
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Determines citizens'' ability to participate effectively in a digital economy
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Major Government Initiatives
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Initiative
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Key Focus
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Target / Significance
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ULLAS – Nav Bharat Saaksharta Karyakram
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Adult education and lifelong learning
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Covers non-literates aged 15 years and above
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NIPUN Bharat
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Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN)
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Universal FLN by 2026–27
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Samagra Shiksha
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Integrated school education
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Covers education from pre-school to senior secondary
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PM SHRI
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Development of exemplar schools
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Demonstrates implementation of NEP 2020
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PM e-VIDYA
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Digital, online and broadcast education
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Expands access to learning resources
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PM POSHAN
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School nutrition
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Supports attendance, retention and learning
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Interaction of Two Weather Systems
GS-I – Climatology
Why in News?
Heavy rainfall and flood-like conditions over parts of northern India were associated with the interaction between a moisture-rich system originating from the Bay of Bengal and a Western Disturbance.
What are the Two Systems?
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Weather System
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Characteristics
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Role in Rainfall
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Bay of Bengal Tropical System
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Warm, moisture-rich air mass moving inland
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Supplies abundant moisture
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Western Disturbance
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Eastward-moving mid-latitude weather system
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Provides upper-level dynamical forcing and cooler air
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Mechanism of Interaction
- Moisture Supply : The Bay of Bengal system transports warm and moisture-laden air towards northern and central India.
- Arrival of Western Disturbance : A Western Disturbance introduces a contrasting cooler air mass and upper-level circulation over the region.
- Atmospheric Instability : The interaction creates favourable conditions for vertical instability, particularly when warm, moist air exists near the lower atmosphere while relatively cooler air is present aloft.
- Rapid Upward Movement : Warm, moisture-rich air rises, cools and undergoes condensation.
- Deep Cloud Formation : Strong upward motion can produce deep convective clouds, increasing the potential for intense and prolonged rainfall.
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Modhera Sun Temple
GS-I – Art & Culture
Why in News?
The Modhera Sun Temple in Gujarat was highlighted in the context of Modhera''s transformation into a solar-powered village, bringing attention to the historical association between solar worship and the region''s contemporary renewable-energy initiatives.
Key Facts
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Parameter
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Details
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Location
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Modhera, Mehsana district, Gujarat
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River
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Pushpavati River
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Dynasty
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Solanki/Chaulukya dynasty
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Ruler
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Bhima I
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Period
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c. 1025–1027 CE
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Deity
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Surya (Sun God)
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Architectural style
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Maru-Gurjara / Solanki architecture
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Orientation
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East-facing
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Major structures
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Surya Kund, Sabha Mandap and Gudha Mandap
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Surya Kund
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Large stepped tank with 108 miniature shrines
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Sabha Mandap
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Known for intricately carved pillars and sculptural decoration
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UNESCO status
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Added to India''s Tentative List in 2022
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Architectural Significance
- Surya Kund: A monumental stepped water reservoir situated in front of the temple. Its steps contain numerous small shrines, creating an important combination of water architecture and religious architecture.
- Sabha Mandap: The assembly hall is renowned for its elaborately carved pillars depicting mythological narratives, deities, dancers and other motifs.
- Gudha Mandap: The principal shrine hall is connected with the sanctum and forms part of the temple''s axial architectural composition.
- Solar Orientation: The temple''s eastward orientation reflects the importance of Surya worship and solar symbolism in its architectural design.
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Pashudhan Bima Portal
GS-III – Agriculture
Why in News?
The Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying (DAHD) is promoting digitalisation of livestock insurance through the Pashudhan Bima Portal.
What is it?
The Pashudhan Bima Portal is a digital platform facilitating livestock insurance, helping streamline insurance-related processes for livestock owners.
Key Facts
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Parameter
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Details
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Department
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Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying
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Purpose
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Digital platform for livestock insurance
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Sector
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Animal Husbandry & Dairying
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Linked Initiative
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National Livestock Mission (NLM)
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Beneficiary Contribution
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15% of the premium
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Key Objective
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Provide financial protection to livestock owners against animal losses
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Significance
- Risk protection: Provides financial protection to livestock owners against losses arising from insured livestock.
- Digital delivery: Reduces procedural barriers and improves transparency in insurance administration.
- Livelihood security: Livestock is an important source of income for rural households; insurance can reduce vulnerability to asset loss.
- Animal husbandry development: Complements efforts to improve productivity and resilience in the livestock sector.
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PRAMAAN Certificates & Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme
GS III Environment
Why in News?
India has issued its first PRAMAAN certificates under the Indian Forest and Wood Certification Scheme (IFWCS), marking a step towards establishing a national framework for credible certification of sustainably managed forests and forest-based products.
What is PRAMAAN?
- PRAMAAN refers to the Programme for Recognition and Accreditation of Sustainable Management Practices for Agroforestry and Natural Forestry Resources.
- It functions within India''s emerging certification framework to provide greater assurance regarding the sustainable management and traceability of forest and wood-based resources.
Three Certification Streams
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Component
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Focus
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Forest restoration
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Improving degraded forest ecosystems
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Agroforestry
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Integrating trees with agricultural production
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Trees Outside Forests
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Increasing tree cover beyond designated forest areas
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Landscape restoration
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Restoring interconnected ecological systems across administrative boundaries
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Why is Certification Important?
- Market Access : Credible certification can help Indian forest-based producers respond to sustainability and traceability requirements in domestic and international markets.
- Traceability : Chain-of-custody mechanisms help establish where forest products originate and how they move through the supply chain, reducing opportunities for illegal or unsustainably sourced material to enter certified markets.
- Sustainable Forest Management : Certification creates incentives for forest managers to comply with defined standards relating to biodiversity, regeneration, resource use and ecosystem protection.
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Statistical Business Register
GS-III – Indian Economy
Why in News?
The Ministry of MSME and Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) signed an MoU to strengthen the creation and use of a Statistical Business Register.
What is a Statistical Business Register?
A Statistical Business Register is a centralised database of businesses and economic establishments that provides a structured sampling and information base for economic statistics.
Key Features
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Parameter
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Details
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Nature
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Centralised database of businesses and economic establishments
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Key Ministries
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Ministry of MSME and MoSPI
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Coverage
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Businesses and economic establishments
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Primary Uses
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Business demography, economic surveys and statistical analysis
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Key Benefit
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Provides a reliable statistical base for evidence-based economic policymaking
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Significance
- Better data quality: Provides an updated and structured database of economic establishments.
- Survey efficiency: Helps create reliable sampling frames for economic surveys.
- Business demography: Enables analysis of business births, deaths, survival and growth.
- Evidence-based policy: Supports more accurate policy formulation for the MSME and broader economic sectors.
- Data integration: Can improve coordination among different administrative and statistical datasets.
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Trust Deficit in the United Nations
GS II International Relations
Why in News?
The 81st UN General Assembly has brought renewed attention to declining confidence in the UN system amid persistent conflicts, institutional paralysis and demands for greater representation of the Global South.
Core Issue
The central problem is the growing gap between the UN''s universal mandate and its limited institutional capacity to respond collectively to contemporary crises.
Why is Trust Eroding?
- Security Council Paralysis : P5 veto politics can prevent collective action despite large-scale humanitarian crises.
- Representation Deficit : The Security Council continues to reflect the geopolitical structure of 1945, while Africa and much of the Global South remain without permanent representation.
- Resource Mismatch : Military expenditure has expanded while development financing remains inadequate for achieving the SDGs.
- Accountability Concerns : Procurement irregularities and allegations of misconduct weaken confidence in UN institutions.
- Peacemaking Gap : Humanitarian assistance can alleviate suffering but cannot substitute for durable political settlements.
Significance for India
- Strengthens India''s argument for UNSC reform.
- Supports greater representation for the Global South.
- Reinforces India''s advocacy of multilateralism based on equity and effectiveness.
- Provides space for India to contribute through peacekeeping, development partnerships and South-South cooperation.
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World Heart Day 2026
GS II Health
Why in News?
World Heart Day was observed on 29 September 2026 to raise awareness about cardiovascular diseases and the importance of heart health.
Key Facts
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Parameter
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Details
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Date
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29 September
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Organisation
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World Heart Federation (WHF)
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2026 Campaign
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“Don’t Miss a Beat”
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2026 Focus
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Year of Neglected Cardiac Diseases
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Objective
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Raise awareness about cardiovascular health, prevention and timely treatment
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Significance
- Awareness: Highlights prevention, early detection and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
- Neglected conditions: Draws attention to cardiac diseases that receive relatively limited awareness, diagnosis and healthcare resources.
- Public health: Emphasises lifestyle modification and timely medical intervention.
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