Conflicts in Africa | Why Sudan remains trapped in prolonged civil war

• After weeks of fierce fighting, Sudan’s army has announced that it has pushed the rival paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) out of the capital Khartoum. But the Northeast African nation continues to reel from the prolonged conflict that began in April 2023. 
• Since its outbreak, the ongoing civil war in Sudan has evolved into what is widely regarded as the most severe displacement crisis in modern history. The escalating conflict between two rival military factions — the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the paramilitary RSF, under the command of General Muhammad Hamdan Dagalo — has thus far resulted in an estimated 62,000 deaths and the displacement of approximately 14 million individuals, with no clear end in sight.
• But how has the rivalry between the SAF and RSF shaped the course of the civil war? What are the possible pathways to peace in the war-torn African nation? 

Sudan’s “fight to the death”

• The origins of the current crisis in Sudan can be traced back to 2019, following the ousting of long-time dictator Omar al-Bashir. His rule lasted from 1989 to 2019 and was characterised by authoritarianism, widespread corruption, human rights violations, and economic mismanagement. 
• As part of his strategy for “coup-proofing” his regime, Bashir established powerful parallel security forces. Among these was an Arab militia known as the “Janjaweed”, which primarily recruited Baggara (cattle herders) Arabs from the Darfur and Kordofan regions.
• This militia, which later evolved into the RSF, also played a significant role in the Darfur conflict between 2003 and 2005, leading to the genocide of approximately 200,000 indigenous black African Muslims.
• Ironically, General Burhan’s regular military forces and the RSF cooperated in the coup to oust Omar al-Bashir in 2019. After Bashir’s removal, a fragile agreement was forged between civilians and the military to establish a transitional government with a civilian prime minister.
• However, the fragile coalition between the civilian and military factions quickly disintegrated. In October 2021, General Burhan orchestrated another coup, this time dissolving the transitional government and detaining civilian leaders, including Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok.
• Following a prolonged political deadlock after the coup, a framework agreement was eventually signed. A key provision of this transition agreement was the planned merger between the national army and the RSF.
• The recent violence is a direct consequence of disagreements regarding the integration of RSF paramilitaries into the Sudanese Army and the question of who should oversee the process. 
• Since then, General Burhan, leader of the Sovereignty Council, has effectively served as Sudan’s de facto president. As General Dagalo continues challenging him for power, it has become a “fight to the death”, an existential tussle for power and control over resources between two leaders. This deadly contest can also be seen as part of a broader historical pattern.

Historical roots of current crisis

• Sudan’s current conflict is not without historical precedent. Over the past seventy years, the country has experienced twenty attempted coups, ranking second only to Bolivia in the frequency of such events, reflecting a deeply entrenched pattern of political instability.
• In addition, Sudan has endured two protracted civil wars, the most recent of which culminated in 2011 with the secession of South Sudan, now recognised as Africa’s newest sovereign state. 
• The country’s tumultuous past has laid the foundation for the current crisis, creating a vicious cycle of conflict and instability. Therefore, any efforts to establish lasting peace in Sudan must be based on a comprehensive understanding of the complex and interrelated historical, political, and societal factors that continue to shape the country’s volatile environment.
• The underlying causes of the conflict are both multifaceted and deeply entrenched. Primary factors that have contributed to the outbreak of the current crisis include the pronounced politicisation of ethnic and regional identities, persistent challenges related to democratisation and governance, and the significant influence of external actors. 
• While most violent conflicts have occurred during the post-colonial period, the colonial era played a decisive role in laying the foundations for many of these enduring issues.

The colonial legacy

• When Sudan gained independence from Britain and Egypt in 1956, it inherited more than just a new flag — it also inherited deep and dangerous divisions. Under colonial administration, policies of “divide and rule” and indirect governance fostered significant regional and ethnic divisions, particularly between the predominantly Arab and Muslim North and the largely African, Christian, or animist South. 
• Colonial authorities promoted the perception of Arab superiority — particularly among riverine Arab groups — over populations in regions such as Darfur and southern Sudan.
• This preferential treatment extended to the allocation of positions within the bureaucracy and military, where Arabs were disproportionately represented. These colonial-era policies institutionalised ethnic hierarchies and sowed the seeds of the identity-based tensions that continue to destabilise Sudan today.
• In the post-colonial period, the divisions entrenched during Sudan’s colonial era were further intensified by political marginalisation, economic disparities, and the systematic exclusion of the southern population from meaningful participation in the central government.
• These identity-based cleavages significantly hindered the development of a cohesive and inclusive national identity. 
• Over time, the failure to address these structural inequalities and grievances contributed directly to the secession of the southern region and the eventual establishment of the Republic of South Sudan.

Democratisation and governance issues

• The evolution of regimes in post-colonial Sudan has been marked by mismanagement, corruption, authoritarian rule, and a pattern of neglect and confrontation.
•  Successive governments have been marked by corruption, nepotism, exclusion, injustice, and the inequitable distribution of national resources. These systemic issues have not only worsened poverty and weakened the state but have also eroded social cohesion, thus exacerbating the conditions that fuel violent conflict. 
• For much of the past seventy years, Sudan has been under the control of autocratic leaders who promoted Arab supremacist ideologies, often at the expense of marginalised ethnic groups such as the African tribes of Darfur and the people of South Sudan. This legacy of exclusion and inequality continues to shape the country’s political landscape and contribute to its instability.
• Another indicator of Sudan’s fragile state is its economic structure, which has long been marked by a heavy dependence on oil resources alongside widespread corruption. In 2011, the secession of South Sudan, which controlled over 75 per cent of the country’s oil reserves, inflicted a significant blow to Sudan’s economy.
• The loss of this vital resource deepened existing economic grievances and heightened discontent across the nation, contributing to the broader instability that continues to plague the country today.

External interventions

• Sudan is strategically located at the crossroads of the Red Sea, the Sahel, and the Horn of Africa. The country is endowed with vast arable land and an array of abundant natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, gold, silver, chromite, manganese, gypsum, mica, zinc, iron, lead, uranium, copper, kaolin, cobalt, granite, nickel, tin, and aluminium. Sudan’s geographic position, coupled with its wealth of natural resources, makes it a significant area of interest for multiple countries.
• The ongoing crisis in Sudan is heavily influenced by the involvement of multiple external actors, each driven by its own political agenda and interests. Sudan shares borders with seven countries — Chad, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, the Central African Republic, Libya, and Egypt — and holds significant geopolitical importance. 
• Therefore, different countries such as Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Russia, have sought to secure friendly governments in line with their strategic objectives. In doing so, they have contributed to the crisis by backing different factions and employing a range of tactics to shape the country’s political landscape.

Pathways to peace

• Sudan’s experiment with democracy has become a paradox, failing to establish good governance or bring stability to the country. At present, Sudan is grappling with severe shortages of food, water, medicine, and fuel, while more than half of the population — approximately 25.6 million people — are facing acute food insecurity, including 8.5 million of them experiencing emergency levels of deprivation. 
• In the absence of a resolution to the crisis, hundreds of thousands more individuals are likely to be forced to flee in search of refuge and basic humanitarian assistance. 
• The Sudanese Civil War is indeed a complex conflict with deep historical roots. While the situation remains dire, there are potential pathways to peace that need to be explored. However, addressing the root causes would require a fresh approach, one that involves all relevant stakeholders in meaningful negotiations and commits to long-term economic and political reforms. 
• In these negotiations, local peace priorities must take precedence over the geopolitical interests of foreign powers. Above all, the peaceful restoration of democratic governance in Sudan must be prioritised within the national and regional security frameworks

Why do the two sides of the moon look different?

• The earth’s moon is tidally locked: one side always faces the earth and the other side always faces away. So when scientists got their first look of the moon’s far side, they were surprised to find it looked very different from the near side.
• NASA’s GRAIL mission recently reported small month-on-month changes in the moon’s gravity caused by tides on the earth. When mission scientists processed the data, they found evidence that the moon’s interior is not uniform: the near side seemed to be warmer, softer, and slightly molten. The researchers predicted a temperature difference of 100-200º C between the hemispheres.
• Because warmer rock melts more easily, their models suggested there is still a partly molten layer of rock 800-1,250 km beneath the near side surface.
• Long ago, this layer could have risen to the surface and erupted to form dark lava plains that dominate the near side. As the interior slowly cooled, the eruptions would have faded 3-4 billion years ago. The moon’s far side crust is thicker, so the magma may never have made it to the surface there.
• The findings join others — like meteorites being shielded by the earth on the near side, an uneven distribution of radioactive materials, and quirks in the moon’s ancient formation event — to understand why the earth’s closest cosmic companion is also Janus-faced.

Here''s a deeper dive into why the Moon’s two hemispheres are so different:

• Tidal Locking Effect: The Moon has been tidally locked to Earth for billions of years, meaning one side always faces our planet while the other remains hidden. This prolonged exposure to Earth’s gravitational influence may have played a role in shaping the near side’s geological features.
• Uneven Internal Heating: NASA’s GRAIL mission detected gravity variations that revealed temperature differences between the hemispheres—estimated at 100–200ºC. The near side is warmer, softer, and slightly molten, while the far side remains cooler and more rigid.
• Magma Distribution & Surface Features: A partly molten layer, 800–1,250 km beneath the near side, may have contributed to massive volcanic eruptions long ago, forming the dark lava plains (maria) we see today. In contrast, the far side’s thicker crust likely prevented magma from rising, leaving it more cratered.
• Other Contributing Factors: The near side may have been shielded by Earth’s presence, reducing meteorite impacts compared to the far side. Additionally, variations in radioactive elements and conditions during the Moon’s formation influenced its final appearance.
• Using the Moon’s contrasting hemispheres to guide future exploration missions could help scientists determine how heat distribution affects planetary formation.
• Because the near side has a partly molten interior, researchers might prioritize landing sites where volcanic activity played a role in shaping the landscape. The thick crust on the far side, meanwhile, suggests a very different geological history—possibly containing unique rock compositions that are yet to be studied.
• Another exciting implication is the potential link between tidal interactions and radioactive element distribution.
• Since Earth’s gravitational influence is stronger on the near side, scientists may look for clues about how this might have affected the concentration of heat-producing elements. This research could refine our understanding of planetary differentiation—not just on the Moon but across the solar system.
• Future missions, like Artemis and lunar sample-return projects, could use this data to decide where to collect materials for studying how internal heat shapes planetary surfaces. If researchers find similar mechanisms at work on other celestial bodies, it could help explain why some moons and planets evolve with smooth lava plains while others remain heavily cratered.
• These insights don’t just enhance lunar exploration but also offer parallels for studying Earth’s geological evolution, particularly in understanding mantle convection and heat flow.

Cultural significance of state trees

• Every state in India has a tree. Unfortunately, when you go to the various railway stations and airports in the capital city of each state, you do not find the state tree. Instead, you find decorative trees and this is how over time we forget what our state tree is. And we do not think about the cultural significance of the state tree. 
• Now if I ask what is the national tree of India, the answer is simple: the Banyan tree. It is a sacred tree in Hinduism, Buddhism (linked to Kashyapa Buddha, not Gautama Buddha) and Jainism (linked to Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara). And this national tree is also the state tree of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. 
• But in Haryana, Bihar, and Odisha, the state tree is the Pipal tree under which the Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment as did the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanath, who lived before Mahavira. 

Sacred Sal, Ashoka and Shami

• In Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, it is the Sal tree. In Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana, Ram shoots an arrow through seven Sal trees. The Sal tree is also linked to Buddhism. The Buddha was born when his mother was holding a branch of the Sal tree. Also, the Buddha died between two Sal trees. Munisuvrata, the 20th Tirthankara, who lived during the time of Ram, is linked to the Sal tree. 
• The Ashoka tree is the state tree of Uttar Pradesh, while the Ashoka flower is the state flower of Odisha. The tree with its orange flowers is also linked to the Ramayana as Sita was kept in the Ashoka garden or Ashok Vatika of Lanka. 
• The Khejri tree, also known as the Shami tree, is the state tree of Telangana and Rajasthan. It grows in arid regions and is linked with warrior communities. The Khejri tree is also found on the Harappan seals.
•  It is slightly thorny and venerated by royal families during Dussehra festivals. The Mahabharata says that during exile, the Pandavas hid their weapons in this tree. 
• The mango tree, whose leaves are used in religious ceremonies and as decorations at the entrances of homes during festivals, is the state tree of Maharashtra and Chandigarh.
•  Interestingly, the Gulmohar Tree – although introduced to India less than 200 years ago – is presumed to be the state tree of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. For Christians of Kerala, the red flowers of the Gulmohar are the blood of Jesus that fell on the tree when he was crucified. They refer to the tree as “Kaalvarippoo” (Calvary flower).
• The state trees of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh are conifer trees (a group of cone-bearing evergreen trees). Deodar, linked to Shiva, is the state tree of Himachal Pradesh; Chinara, sacred to Sufis, is the state tree of Jammu & Kashmir, and Juniper, associated with Tibetan Buddhists, is the state tree of Ladakh.
• In Sikkim and Uttarakhand, the Rhododendron tree is the state tree. Its bright red flowers are offered to the goddess Nandadevi. 
• The iron tree of Mizoram is a sacred tree in Buddhism and is linked to many future Buddhas. It is also the national tree of Sri Lanka. Tripura’s state tree is the fragrant Agar, which is used to make scent. In West Bengal, the sacred tree is Saptaparni, whose bark is used to make school blackboards. Graduates of Santiniketan’s Vishwa-Bharati University carry a sprig of this tree during their graduation ceremony.
• Banyan Tree (National Tree, Gujarat & Madhya Pradesh): Sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the Banyan tree symbolizes longevity and wisdom. It is linked to Kashyapa Buddha and Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara.
• Pipal Tree (Haryana, Bihar & Odisha): The tree under which Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment. It is also connected to the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanath.
• Sal Tree (Chhattisgarh & Jharkhand): Featured in the Ramayana, where Ram shoots an arrow through seven Sal trees. In Buddhism, Queen Maya was holding a Sal branch when she gave birth to Buddha. The Sal tree also marks the site of Buddha’s passing.
• Ashoka Tree (Uttar Pradesh): Linked to the Ramayana, as Sita was kept in Ashok Vatika in Lanka. Its vibrant orange flowers are also the state flower of Odisha.
• Khejri/Shami Tree (Telangana & Rajasthan): Found on Harappan seals and associated with warrior traditions. In the Mahabharata, the Pandavas hid their weapons in this tree during exile.
• Neem Tree (Andhra Pradesh): Sacred to the goddess and widely used for its medicinal properties.
• Bael Tree (Puducherry): Sacred to Shiva and used in religious rituals.
• Toddy Palm (Tamil Nadu): Associated with Balaram and a vital source of food and drink in southern traditions.
• Coconut Tree (Goa & Kerala): Revered in Hindu rituals and plays an essential role in coastal economies.
• Sandalwood Tree (Karnataka): Used in religious offerings and sacred to Vishnu.
• Timber Trees of the Northeast: Hollong in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, Alder in Nagaland, and Redwood in Andaman are crucial to tribal traditions and construction.
• Iron Tree (Mizoram): Sacred in Buddhism and considered significant for future Buddhas.
• Breadfruit Tree (Lakshadweep): A reminder of Polynesian seafarers who introduced this plant to the island.
• Each tree carries a story that links it to India’s rich cultural and historical fabric

Tyre particles: How EVs are a climate solution with pollution problem

• By eliminating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, electric vehicles (EVs) play an important role in the fight against climate change. However, while contributing to solving one problem, they may be adding to another.
• A new study by Indian researchers has found that EVs may be bad news for tackling air pollution.
• The study, published, has shown that EVs, on account of their greater weight, experience higher wear and tear in their tyres compared to conventional vehicles, and release substantially larger numbers of small plastic particles in the atmosphere.
• This could have adverse implications for the health of both humans and the environment.

How tyres are degraded

• The disintegration of automobile tyres results in the release of small rubber particles that are air pollutants.
• The normal wear and tear of tyres produces particles of broadly two sizes – one, about 1-10 micrometres; the other, more than 100 micrometres. Particles of intermediate sizes are also produced, but they are relatively fewer in number.
• The study by researchers from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), IIT Bombay, and Columbia University in the US has, for the first time, established the relationship between the weight and speed of a vehicle to the size of the plastic particles released from tyres as a result of wear and tear. 
• The tyres of heavier and faster-moving vehicles produce a higher proportion of smaller particles, shows the study. Unlike the larger particles that settle on the ground due to gravity, smaller particles remain suspended in the air, adding to the concentration of air pollutants.
• The study also brings out, for the first time, that particles of different sizes are produced by different physical processes of degradation of tyres.
• Thus, degradation caused by sudden braking or encounters with potholes, which the researchers call “primary fragmentation”, results in the release of mainly smaller particles of varying sizes.
• And gradual wear and tear, called “sequential fragmentation” in the study, leads to the release of mainly larger particles.
• Thus, an improvement in road quality would likely reduce the release of larger particles, but would have little effect on the smaller particles.

Global relevance of study

• The results of the study are globally relevant because of the ongoing push for the adoption of EVs. Electric vehicles are significantly heavier than conventional petrol vehicles because of the batteries – which can weigh anything between 300 kg and 900 kg.
• The weight of the batteries necessitates the reinforcement of the vehicle frame, which adds to the overall weight. Typically, an EV is at least 15-20% heavier than a comparable conventional vehicle.
• EVs are also able to accelerate more rapidly. This can lead to additional stress on the tyres due to increased friction and heat generation.
• The tyres of EVs are, therefore, likely to undergo a greater degree of primary fragmentation, releasing larger amounts of smaller plastic particles that add to the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere.
• The findings of the study shed new light on the relatively lesser-studied negative impacts of the deployment of EVs, which is being incentivised around the world.
• Road transport accounts for almost 10% of global GHG emissions, the result primarily of the burning of fuel in vehicles.
• EVs account for just about 2% of the global vehicle stock, but they contributed to about 20% of new car sales across the world last year, according to an International Energy Agency report.
• In India, about 2.5% of cars sold in 2024 were electrics, according to a recent report by S&P Global. The government aims to take this figure to about 30% by 2030. In China, EVs accounted for almost half of all car sales last year.

Potential responses

• The researchers say their findings call for different kinds of response measures.
• Current air quality regulations in most countries are aimed at controlling PM2.5- and PM10-size particles. Tyre fragments are smaller than these.
• With the proliferation of EVs, and tyre fragments becoming a more noticeable constituent of air pollution, these regulations would probably need to be expanded.
• At the same time, tyre manufacturers would need to invest in research and development to produce sturdier tyres that are better suited to heavier EVs.
• Also, emissions standards would probably need to account for non-exhaust emissions from vehicles.
• The researchers have also suggested possible technological fixes – such as the possibility of capturing the small tyre fragments at the time of their release, preventing them from getting into the atmosphere

What is the FATF, and why does Pakistan potentially being greylisted matter?

• India will submit a dossier to the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) which will make a case for putting Pakistan back in the “grey list”.
• New Delhi will specifically point to the non-compliance of certain provisions that Islamabad had promised to adhere to when it was taken off the FATF grey list in 2022 Pakistan had been in the grey list for four years, between 2018 and 2022.

What is the FATF?

• The FATF is the global money-laundering and terror financing watchdog. It is an inter-governmental organisation with 40 members (including Russia whose membership was suspended in 2023).
• The body “researches how money is laundered and terrorism is funded, promotes global standards to mitigate the risks, and assesses whether countries are taking effective action”, the organisation’s website states.
• MONITORING & INFORMING: As a watchdog, the FATF’s primary task is to monitor how criminals and terrorists “raise, use and move funds” and “raise awareness about the latest money laundering, terrorist financing and proliferation financing techniques”.
• SETTING STANDARDS: Based on its research, the FATF has a set of recommendations to “ensure a co-ordinated global response to prevent organised crime, corruption and terrorism”. These help countries to follow best practices to thwart money laundering and terror financing, and go after criminals engaged in these illegal practices.
• FLAGGING NON-COMPLIANCE: This is the context in which most lay people hear of the FATF. Put simply, those who do not comply to FATF standards are flagged and put in two categories, commonly referred to as the “grey and black lists”.

What FATF’s grey/black lists entail?

• The FATF identifies jurisdictions with weak measures to combat money laundering and terrorist financing (AML/CFT regimes) in two public documents that are issued three times a year — in February, June and October.
• The grey list, officially “Jurisdictions under Increased Monitoring”, comprises countries that have significant deficiencies in their AML/CFT regimes but are actively working with the FATF to address these “within agreed timeframes”. As the name suggests, countries in the grey list are subject to increased monitoring by the FATF. Currently, there are 24 countries in this list.
• Greylisting prompts countries to address AML/CFT deficiencies. It carries with it adverse economic and reputational impacts, which affect the inflow of foreign investment and international aid. Government of India officials had previously said Pakistan being on the grey list from 2018 to 2022 had helped curtail illicit fund flows into India, especially in Jammu & Kashmir.
• The black list, officially “High-Risk Jurisdictions subject to a Call for Action”, comprises countries with “serious strategic deficiencies” in their AML/CFT regimes. The FATF urges all other jurisdictions to not only apply enhanced due diligence while dealing with countries in this list but als “apply counter-measures to protect the international financial system from the… risks emanating from the country”.
• Three countries are in the black list at the moment — North Korea, Myanmar, and Iran. They have been slapped with mandated economic sanctions by FATF member countries as a result

Women in judiciary: A mountain to climb

Gender gap in judiciary

• Since its establishment in 1950, the Supreme Court has had only 11 women judges. The first woman judge of the Supreme Court, Justice M. Fathima Beevi, was appointed in 1989 – 39 years after the court came into being. At present, there are only two women judges – Justice Bela Trivedi and Justice B. V. Nagarathna – out of the total 33, including the Chief Justice. 
• Justice Trivedi is retiring on June 9, but Friday (May 16, 2025) marked her last working day. However, her retirement took an unexpected turn as the Supreme Court Bar Association didn’t hold the traditional official farewell ceremony for her. Notably, after Justice Trivedi’s retirement, the number of women judges would be reduced to only one. 
• The situation is not much better even in the High Courts and the lower courts. According to the data from the Supreme Court Observer (2021), only 11.7% of judges in High Courts are women. Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Patna and Uttarakhand High Courts have no women judges. In the lower courts, women judges only account for 35%. These figures underline that gender imbalance exists across all levels of the judicial system. 
• a Moreover, viewed through an inter-sectional lens, the picture appears more troubling. In the last 75 years, there has been no Dalit or tribal woman judge in the Supreme Court. Justice M. Fathima Beevi has been the first – and so far, the only – Muslim woman judge of the Supreme Court. 

Women in collegium system

• Currently, there are no women in the Supreme Court collegium – a system for the appointment and transfer of judges in the Supreme Court and High Courts. Though it is not a Constitutional provision, the collegium system has evolved through judgments of the Supreme Court itself. It consists of the Chief Justice of India and four senior judges from the apex court. Only two women judges — Justice Ruma Pal and Justice R. Banumathi — have been a part of the collegium. 
• Adequate representation of women in the Supreme Court collegium would perhaps help increase the number of women judges.
• A 2025 report by the Centre for Law and Policy Research (CLPR), Bengaluru, found that women judges in the Supreme Court serve one year less than their men counterparts on average. This shorter tenure affected their chances of rising to the senior positions, and subsequently, to the collegium. 
• For instance, Justice  B. V. Nagarathna is poised to become the first woman Chief Justice of India. But her tenure will only last for 36 days.

Why gender diversity matters in judiciary

• The lack of gender diversity and women’s under-representation in the judiciary often lead to judgments that reinforce existing patriarchal biases. It is visible in some of the recent judgments from the Allahabad High Court. For instance, on March 11, 2025, the Allahabad High Court granted bail in an alleged rape case and said that the woman had “herself invited trouble and was also responsible for the same”.
• Similarly, on March 17, 2025, the court passed an order, involving a minor and two men, and said that grabbing breasts and breaking the strings of the girl’s pyjamas were not sufficient to hold the charges of rape or attempt to rape.
• The Supreme Court had to intervene in both of these cases. These judgments have been criticised as ‘insensitive’ and ‘inhuman’. Justice Bela Trivedi’s remark that “we should empower women through law, not sympathy” is particularly relevant here. Such judgements perhaps need to be seen in relation to the women’s presence in the judiciary. 
• In August 2022, the district and sessions judge at Kozhikode, cited the ‘revealing and provocative dress’ of the complainant as a valid ground to grant anticipatory bail to the accused in a molestation case. Again in 2022, the Bombay High Court ruled that the accused is a young boy and he was ‘smitten by infatuation’ while granting bail in the rape case of a minor. Judgments like these not only reinforce patriarchal beliefs but also deny justice to the victims and survivors.  

Normalising women in the judiciary

• Therefore, it may be argued that appointments of women to the judiciary at all levels need to be normalised. Women need to have space to work as individuals – rather than being seen as symbolic representatives or torchbearers for all women. At the same time, it is also important that women judges are not confined to adjudicating only on women’s issues.
• Spending efforts towards gender sensitisation and enhancing accountability could be a step in the right direction. Some states like Jharkhand, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Telangana and Bihar have reservations for women. But these measures seem insufficient. In addition to affirmative action, some infrastructural improvements — such as better sanitation and toilet facilities, particularly in lower courts — would be crucial in encouraging more women to enter the judiciary. 
• Moreover, regular surveys that take account of women’s intersectional representation in the judiciary may also be conducted. Such data will be critical in addressing women’s under-representation in the judiciary. Lastly, normalising women’s participation in the judiciary is important for a more inclusive and representative legal system.

International Organisations and Places in News

1. World Economic Forum

• — The World Economic Forum (WEF) hosted its annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland, in January 2025.
• — Klaus Schwab, a German professor, formed the World Economic Forum in 1971, previously known as the European Management Forum.
• — The WEF is primarily funded by its partner corporations, which are typically worldwide companies with annual revenues of more than $5 billion.
• — The WEF is committed to the ideals of independence, impartiality, moral integrity, and intellectual honesty.

2. International Criminal Court

• — The ICC’s founding instrument, known as the Rome Statute, allows it jurisdiction over four major crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.
• The crime of genocide is distinguished by the specific intent to destroy in whole or in part a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group by killing its members or inflicting substantial bodily or mental harm on members of the group.
• — The International Criminal Court (ICC) can pursue crimes against humanity, which are significant violations committed as part of a large-scale attack on a civilian population.
• — War crimes are serious violations of the Geneva Conventions in the context of armed conflict, such as the use of child soldiers, the killing or torture of civilians or prisoners of war, and the intentional targeting of hospitals, historic monuments, or buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science, or charitable purposes.
• — Crime of aggression is the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, integrity or independence of another State.

3. QUAD

• — QUAD is an informal organisation of countries that includes Australia, India, Japan, and the United States. It was an endeavour of the Trump administration during his first term. The Biden administration elevated it to the position of leadership.
• — Following the Indian Ocean tsunami in December 2004, India, Japan, Australia, and the United States formed an informal alliance to coordinate disaster relief efforts. Shinzo Abe, Japan’s then-Prime Minister, codified the partnership in 2007 as the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or the Quad.
• — US President Joseph R. Biden hosted the fourth Quad Leaders’ Summit in Wilmington, Delaware on September 21, 2024.
• — The Quad grouping took a groundbreaking cancer initiative globally known as the Quad Cancer Moonshot Initiative. The countries — India, United States, Australia and Japan — launched the programme that will focus on expanding cervical cancer screening; increasing vaccinations against the human papillomavirus, or HPV, a common sexually transmitted infection that is the primary cause of cervical cancer; and treating patients.

4. BRICS

• — Indonesia has officially joined the BRICS as a full member, the Brazilian government declared. Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, and Indonesia presently make up the group of big emerging economies.
• — Brazil, which will hold the BRICS presidency in 2025, said that member nations unanimously approved Indonesia’s entry at the 2023 BRICS summit in Johannesburg. BRICS has been extending its membership in recent years. Along with Indonesia, the bloc includes Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates, demonstrating its expanding influence in emerging countries.
• — Formation: In July 2006, the leaders of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) met for the first time in St. Petersburg, Russia, on the fringes of the G8 Outreach Summit. Following a series of high-level meetings, the first BRIC summit took place on June 16, 2009, in Yekaterinburg, Russia.

5. Rural Community Immigration Class

• — The Rural Community Immigration Class is a new program introduced by Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) in December 2024.
• — Its goal is to address workforce shortages and foster development in tiny rural towns by recruiting people who want to live there for the long term.
• — For students whose PGWPs are about to expire and who are failing to satisfy the Comprehensive Ranking System (CRS) score for PR or get high-paying jobs, this program provides an excellent chance.

6. Non-permanent members of the UNSC

• — The five members (Pakistan, Panama, Somalia, Denmark, and Greece) were elected by a secret ballot in the UN General Assembly for a 2-year term starting on January 1, 2025, until December 31, 2026. In a secret poll, the chosen countries obtained the needed two-thirds majority of Member States present and voting in the 193-member General Assembly.
• — According to the UN Charter, the 15-member Security Council (ten non permanent and five permanent) is primarily responsible for ensuring international peace and security, and all Member States are required to comply with its decisions.
• — The ten non-permanent seats on the Security Council are divided into four regional groups: Africa and Asia; Eastern Europe; Latin America and the Caribbean; and Western European and other States.
• — India has been elected as a non-permanent member of the Council (eight times) for the years 1950-1951, 1967-1968, 1972-1973, 1977-1978, 1984-1985, 1991-1992, 2011-2012, and 2021-2022.
• Note: Five permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

7. African Union

• — The African Union (AU) is an intergovernmental organisation of the 55 member states located on the continent of Africa.
• — It was officially established in 2002 as the successor of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU, 1963-1999).
• — The African Union Commission, the organization’s secretariat, is headquartered in Addis Ababa. The organisation has a combined GDP of $3 trillion and 1.4 billion people.
• — The official languages of the Union and its institutions will be Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Kiswahili, and any other African language.

9. G20

• — The Group of Twenty (G20) consists of 19 countries (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States) as well as two regional bodies: the European Union and the African Union (as of 2023).
• — The G20 countries account for around 85% of global GDP, over 75% of global trade, and almost two-thirds of the world’s population.

10. United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)

• — It is an intergovernmental body responsible for strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights around the globe.
• — It is in charge of bolstering global efforts to promote and defend human rights.
• — The 47-member Council offers a multilateral forum for discussing national circumstances and breaches of human rights.
• — It offers suggestions on how to more effectively apply human rights in practice and react to emergencies involving human rights.
• — It convenes in UNOG, the United Nations Office in Geneva.

Responsibilities

• — Provides a global platform for discussion of human rights concerns with representatives of the United Nations
• — Adopts resolutions or judgements at regular sessions that represent the global community’s position on certain human rights matters or circumstances.
• — Calls special sessions, or crisis meetings, to address pressing human rights issues.
• — Review each United Nations Member State’s human rights record.

11. World Trade Organization

• — The World Trade Organization is the only international organization that deals with the rules of trade between countries.
• — It was founded in 1995, the WTO is run by its 164 members, and according to its rules, all decisions are taken through consensus and any member can exercise a veto.
• — It aims to promote free trade, which is done through trade agreements that are discussed and signed by the member states.
• — The WTO also provides a forum for countries to negotiate trade rules and settle economic disputes.
• — The Ministerial Conference is the WTO’s top decision-making body and usually meets every two years. All members of the WTO are involved in the Ministerial Conference and they can make decisions on all matters covered under any multilateral trade agreements.

12. 16th United Nations Biodiversity Conference (COP16)

• — The 16th United Nations Biodiversity Conference (COP16) in Cali, Colombia, concluded without consensus on a new fund to protect nature, halting discussions.
• — The negotiations ran 12 hours behind schedule due to a lack of quorum, prompting Colombian Environment Minister Susana Muhamad to suspend the session after many negotiators had gone.
• — COP16 made some accomplishments, such as establishing a subsidiary organisation to incorporate indigenous views into future biodiversity negotiations.
• — The conference’s primary goal was to monitor progress towards the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF), which aims to safeguard 30% of global land and sea areas and restore 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030.
• — Currently, roughly $400 million has been pledged to the Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF), but environmentalists warn that this amount is insufficient to stop biodiversity loss.

13. International Solar Alliance

• — The International Solar Alliance is the first international treaty-based organisation that enables co-operation among sun-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
• — It was established following the Paris Declaration at the UN Climate Change Conference on November 30, 2015. The International Solar Alliance was unveiled by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and then French President Francois Hollande.
• — The maiden summit of the International Solar Alliance was hosted by India while the co-host was France.
• — ISA was envisaged as a facilitator, or a force multiplier, which would help countries overcome financial, technological, regulatory, or other barriers in harnessing solar energy.

14. G7

• — The G7 arose from a 1973 summit of finance ministers and central bank governors in Paris, France. This summit was held in response to serious economic issues at the time, including an oil crisis, growing inflation, and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. The US dollar’s value was fixed against gold.
• — The inaugural G7 summit, held in 1975 at Rambouillet, France, brought together the leaders of France, Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, Italy, and Japan.
• — Since 1977, officials from the European Economic Community, now known as the European Union, have also participated.
• — Russia’s accession in 1998 enlarged the group to the G8, however, its participation was suspended in 2014 due to the annexation of Crimea.

15. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

• — The origin of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation lies in the “Shanghai Five”, formed in 1996 and consisting of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
• — On June 15, 2001, the Shanghai Cooperation institution (SCO) was created as an international institution, with Uzbekistan joining as the sixth member.
• — It had ten members: India, Iran, Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Belarus. (latest member to join: Belarus). Afghanistan and Mongolia hold Observer Status.
• — The official languages of the SCO are Russian and Chinese.

16. ASEAN

• — On August 8, 1967, five Southeast Asian leaders – the Foreign Ministers of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand met in Bangkok. Thailand was mediating certain conflicts between Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, and the occasion eventually resulted in the signing of a document.
• — Over the next several decades, five more countries joined: Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam.
• — The ten-nation group has an anthem, a flag, and biannual meetings (twice a year) with a rotating chairperson.
• — ASEAN is key to India’s ‘Act East’ policy, which focuses on the Asia-Pacific region as an extended neighbourhood. It was developed as the next phase in the ‘Look East’ Policy, which began in the 1990s.

17. Extended Fund Facility

• — An EFF is a financial assistance package offered by the IMF to countries facing severe balance of payments issues due to structural weaknesses that cannot be resolved in the short term.
• — In theory, it is meant to help the borrowing country implement medium-term structural reforms. In Pakistan’s case, these include bolstering monetary and fiscal policies including tax reforms, strengthening competition, and rebuilding the forex reserves.
• — EFF “aims to capitalise on the hard-won macroeconomic stability achieved over the past year by furthering efforts to strengthen public finances, reduce inflation, rebuild external buffers and remove economic distortions to spur private sector led growth.”
• — However, the package does not include plans to restructure the country’s external and internal debt.

18. Mineral Security Partnership (MSP) Finance Network

• — India is now formally a part of the Minerals Security Finance Network, a US-led initiative aiming to strengthen cooperation among members to secure supply chains for critical minerals.
• — The Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN) is a new initiative that emerged from the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP), a framework established by the United States in 2022. India was included in the MSP in June 2023.
• — India’s inclusion was especially significant because one of the core components of New Delhi’s economic strategy is an ambitious change in the mobility area, involving the conversion of a large portion of public and private transportation to electric vehicles.

19. European Free Trade Association (EFTA)

• — EFTA is an intergovernmental grouping of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.
• — The deal brings in $100 billion in investment over 15 years, with the EFTA looking at joint ventures that will help India diversify imports away from China.
• — India signed a trade agreement with the four-nation EFTA. India could see investment flow into the pharma, chemical sectors, food processing and engineering sectors.

20. Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)

• — PIF is an intergovernmental organisation which consists of 18 member states located in the Pacific region. It was formed in 1971.
• — Pacific Island countries: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
• — The countries of this grouping are among the world’s worst-affected countries due to rising sea levels. Australia and New Zealand are among the wealthiest and largest countries which are part of the organisation.
• — The organisation discusses priority issues at its annual meeting, where decisions made by the member states are reached by consensus. The decisions are implemented by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat.

21. Security of Supply Arrangement (SOSA)

• — SOSA requires the United States and India to offer reciprocal priority support for goods and services that promote national defence. The US Department of Defence (DoD) stated that it will “enable both countries to acquire the industrial resources they need from one another to resolve unanticipated supply chain disruptions to meet national security needs”.
• — India is the 18th SOSA partner of the US.

22. India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

• — The IMEC is a connectivity project that aims to create a seamless network of ports, trains, roads, marine lines, and pipelines to boost trade between India, the Arabian Peninsula, the Mediterranean region, and Europe.
• — The IMEC Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed in September 2023 in New Delhi during the G-20 summit by India, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), France, Germany, Italy, the United States, and the European Union.
• — In addition to the signatories to the MoU, Israel and Greece are two important nodal sites in IMEC who have expressed interest in joining the project.

23. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)

• — The United Nations General Assembly and Ludwik Rajchman formed UNICEF on December 11, 1946, to address the needs of children in countries impacted by World War II and to provide emergency help to war-stricken children and mothers.
• — UNICEF’s mandate was expanded in 1950 to address the long-term needs of children and women in developing countries, following an initial focus on food and healthcare in postwar Europe and China.
• — It became a permanent member of the United Nations system in 1953, retaining its mission to fight for the rights of children, aid in meeting their basic requirements, and provide them with opportunities to reach their full potential.
• — Its mission was to assist children and young people whose lives and futures were in danger, regardless of what role their country had played in the conflict.

24. UN Peacekeeping missions

• — India would continue to provide training and capacity-building programs, including courses specifically targeted for women peacekeepers, through initiatives headed by the Centre for UN Peacekeeping, as it did with ASEAN countries in 2023, according to Jaishankar. India strongly thinks that peacekeeping is an effective tool for maintaining world peace and security.
• — Since the 1950s, India has sent over 290,000 peacekeepers to more than 50 UN peacekeeping missions, according to Jaishankar. Currently, more than 5,000 Indian troops are stationed in nine of the eleven active peacekeeping missions.
• — The concept of UN peacekeeping originates from the UN’s lack of armed forces. As a result, Member States voluntarily provide military and police personnel as needed for each peacekeeping mission from their own national forces.
• — Peacekeepers often wear their own countries’ uniforms and are recognisable as UN peacekeepers simply by a UN blue helmet or beret and insignia. They are tasked with protecting people, actively preventing conflict, decreasing violence, increasing security, and equipping national institutions to carry out these functions.

Places in News

(a) Ring of Fire

• — The Ring of Fire is a series of hundreds of volcanoes and earthquake sites that stretch along the Pacific Ocean. It is formed like a semicircle or horseshoe and covers roughly 40,250 km.
• — According to National Geographic, the Ring of Fire marks the meeting points of numerous tectonic plates, including the Eurasian, North American, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Caribbean, Nazca, Antarctic, Indian, Australian, Philippine, and other smaller plates that all encircle the large Pacific Plate.
• — It runs through the USA, Indonesia, Mexico, Japan, Canada, Guatemala, Russia, Chile, Peru, and the Philippines.

(b) Mayotte

• — Storm Dikeledi has triggered major flooding and mudslides on the French enclave of Mayotte in the Indian Ocean
• — The storm caused high gusts, flash floods, and landslides, causing authorities to declare a red alert. The prefect of Mayotte, François-Xavier Bieuville, reported that severe rains had caused significant damage.

(c) Great Bitter Lake

• — The Great Bitter Lake is one of several lakes along the Suez Canal, which connects the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea.

(d) Gulf of Mexico

• — The Gulf of Mexico is a semi-enclosed sea that borders the USA and Mexico and covers approximately 1.5 million square kilometers. The northern Gulf is topographically complex and is a rich source of oil and gas deposits, which has led to a great deal of research on benthic ecosystems from the coastal zone to the deep sea.
• — The Gulf of Mexico is bordered by three countries: the United States, Mexico and Cuba.
• — The Gulf is a productive sea with lucrative fisheries in addition to oil and gas. Exploitation of natural resources and potential climate change impacts threaten vulnerable ecosystems in the Gulf, including those in the deep sea.

 (e) Greenland

• — Greenland is an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark that obtained its home government in 1979.
• — Greenland, with a population of around 57,000, is the world’s largest island. Since 2009, it has had the authority to hold a referendum to determine whether to pursue independence.
• — It is located in the North Atlantic Ocean, between Europe and North America, across the Baffin Bay from Canada.
• — Its strategic importance grew during the Cold War, and the United States maintains a massive air base there, the Pituffik Space Base, formerly the Thule Air Base. The United States can monitor and prevent any missiles approaching Greenland from Russia, China, or possibly North Korea. Similarly, it is easier to fire missiles and ships from Greenland to Asia or Europe.
• — Greenland is rich in rare earth minerals, which are used to make mobile phones, electric vehicles, and other consumer electronics, as well as bombs and other weaponry. Currently, China is a major supplier of these minerals. In 2021, Greenland approved legislation prohibiting uranium mining.

(f) Panama Canal

• — The Panama Canal had long been envisioned, owing to the high expense and time required to get from one ocean to the other by circumnavigating South America.
• — It was constructed between 1904 and 1914, primarily because of US contributions. Until then, the region’s distinctive terrain made building a canal problematic. France had already abandoned similar projects due to their enormous cost.
• — Colombia ruled Panama until 1903, when a US-backed coup helped the country gain independence. The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903 granted the United States rights to build and maintain the canal, as well as permanent rights over the Panama Canal Zone.

(g) St. Martin’s Island

• — The island is located in the northeastern part of the Bay of Bengal, near the boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar.
• — It is nine kilometres from the southernmost point of Bangladesh’s Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsula. It is Bangladesh’s only coral island, with reefs stretching 10-15 km to the west-northwest. It also serves as a breeding site for sea turtles.
• — The island was previously part of the Teknaf peninsula (around 5,000 years ago), but it progressively sank into the sea. The southern suburbs of present-day St Martin’s Island resurfaced some 450 years ago, with the northern and rest of the island rising above sea level during the next 100 years.

(h) Chancay Port

• — The vast $3.6 billion project, funded by China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), has also generated concerns in US policy making circles about Chinese influence in an area that has long been considered its backyard.
• — The port is located about 78 km north of the Peruvian capital of Lima, Chancay is a small fishing town with a population of around 60,000. It is a natural deep-water port, however, previous feasibility studies on building up infrastructure pointed out heavy construction costs.

(i) Ireland

• — Ireland is providing an intriguing chance for residents with the necessary immigration documents to relocate to its picturesque offshore villages.
• — As part of the ‘Our Living Islands’ initiative, the government is offering major economic incentives to attract people to move to the country’s islands. According to Euro News, this program intends to revitalise Ireland’s offshore communities and secure their long-term survival.

(j) Suez Canal

• — The Suez Canal is the 193-km artificial waterway that connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean through the Isthmus of Suez.
• — It reduced the maritime path from Asia to Europe by up to 7,000 kilometres by eliminating the requirement for ships to pass around the southern tip of Africa to connect the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.
• — There is some evidence that a canal was built in the region during the era of Pharaoh Senausret III, who ruled in the second millennium BC. However, the idea for the contemporary canal dates back to the seventeenth century, when European colonial expansion was at its pinnacle.
• — Today, it is one of the world’s busiest waterways, accounting for over 12 per cent of global business.

(k) Westbank

• — The West Bank is bordered by Israel on three sides and Jordan on the east. It also shares a boundary with the Dead Sea to the southeast.
• — The Jordan River defines the eastern border of the Westbank.

(l) Diego Garcia

• — Britain has agreed to give up sovereignty of the Chagos Islands to Mauritius, ending a long-standing dispute over the United Kingdom’s last African colony, after the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled that the UK unlawfully separated the Chagos archipelago from Mauritius before granting it independence.
• — As part of the pact, the UK will maintain control of the UK-US military post on Diego Garcia. Previously, the UK evacuated 1,500 to 2,000 residents in order to lease the island to the United States for military purposes, with both countries sharing responsibility for the base. The treaty also grants the right of return to all islands in the Chagos archipelago, except Diego Garcia.
• — Diego Garcia is the largest island of the Chagos Archipelago which is located in the central Indian Ocean.

(m) Zimbabwe

• — Zimbabwe plans to cull 200 elephants to provide food for communities severely impacted by the worst drought in four decades.
• — The El Nino-induced drought has devastated southern Africa, leading to widespread crop failures and leaving 68 million people facing food shortages across the region.
• — Southern Africa is home to one of the world’s largest elephant populations, with over 200,000 elephants living across a conservation area that spans Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana, Angola, and Namibia.
• — This marks the first elephant cull in Zimbabwe since 1988.

(n) United Arab Emirates

• — The United Arab Emirates has finished the Barakah Nuclear Energy Plant, the Arab world’s first nuclear power plant, according to a statement from the state-owned Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation (ENEC).
• — The Barakah Nuclear Energy Plant is located near Al Dhafra, in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi on the Arabian Gulf, approximately 53 kilometres west-southwest of the city of Ruwais.

(o) Atacama salt flat

• — Chile’s Atacama salt flat is sinking at a pace of 1 to 2 cm per year as a result of lithium brine extraction, a process in which salt-rich water is pumped to the surface and into a series of evaporation ponds to extract lithium.
• — This is happening because pumping occurs quicker than aquifer recharge, resulting in subsidence, or downward vertical displacement of the Earth’s surface.
• — According to the report, the affected area is around 8 kilometres north and south by 5 kilometres east and west.

(p) Nigeria

• — According to recent research conducted by many international development partners, more than 31.8 million Nigerians are currently experiencing severe food shortages.
• — According to the Nigerian government, the problem is exacerbated by continued security concerns and the elimination of fuel subsidies.

(q) Amazon rainforests

• — Deforestation in the Amazon, which encompasses approximately 40% of South America, is typically associated with agricultural growth and illegal mining.
• — The Amazon rainforest spans nine countries: Brazil, Suriname, Peru, Venezuela, Colombia, French Guiana, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Guyana.

(r) Darfur region

• — Sudan, according to the World Food Programme (WFP), is experiencing the world’s worst hunger crisis, with the western Darfur region being particularly vulnerable as Sudan’s 15-month civil war, which has uprooted millions and spurred ethnic bloodshed, continues.
• — The war, sparked by a desire to combine the army and paramilitary forces in a transition to free elections, has resulted in waves of ethnically motivated bloodshed blamed primarily on the RSF.

Key Outcomes from the BRICS Energy Ministers’ Meeting

• India has made significant strides in its energy sector, increasing its electricity capacity by 90% over the past decade to 475 GW in 2025, with a target of 900 GW by 20322. The country has also emerged as the third-largest producer of solar and wind energy, reinforcing its commitment to clean energy and sustainability

Key Outcomes from the BRICS Energy Ministers’ Meeting

• Strengthening Energy Security: The ministers reaffirmed their commitment to UN Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7), which focuses on universal electricity access, clean cooking, and tackling energy poverty.
• Balanced Energy Transition: They emphasized the need for a just, inclusive, and balanced energy transition, allowing each country to determine its own path and pace.
• Financial Support for Developing Nations: The ministers called for increased concessional and low-cost financing from developed nations to help emerging economies transition to low-carbon energy usage.
• Carbon Credit Market: India is launching a domestic carbon credit market, inviting global collaborations to support sustainable energy initiatives2.
• Role of the New Development Bank (NDB): The ministers highlighted the NDB’s role in promoting sustainable energy infrastructure, particularly through local currency financing.
• Energy Trade & Market Stability: They advocated for open, fair, and non-discriminatory international energy markets, encouraging the use of local currencies in energy trade.
• Future BRICS Leadership: India will chair BRICS in 2026, aiming to elevate BRICS’ global energy role and advance shared priorities

What is a Carbon Credit Market?

• carbon credit market allows businesses and industries to buy and sell carbon credits, which represent the right to emit a certain amount of greenhouse gases. Companies that emit less carbon than their allocated limit can sell their unused credits, while high-emission companies purchase additional credits to comply with regulations.

India’s Carbon Credit Market Initiative

• Regulatory Framework: India’s system will be government-regulated, ensuring transparency and efficiency.
• Global Collaboration: The country is inviting foreign investment to strengthen carbon trading mechanisms.
• Encouraging Low-Carbon Growth: Industries adopting clean technologies can earn credits and trade them for revenue.
• Boosting Renewable Energy: Companies investing in solar, wind, and hydroelectric power will benefit from credits, incentivizing sustainable expansion.
• Market Stability & Growth: The initiative aims to develop a robust trading system that promotes economic growth while reducing carbon emissions.

Impact on India’s Sustainability Goals

• Helps achieve Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
• Strengthens India''s position as a leader in renewable energy and climate action.
• Supports industries transitioning to low-carbon operations.
• Encourages private-sector engagement in sustainability efforts.
• India’s carbon credit market is a significant step toward promoting sustainable industries and low-carbon growth.

How Companies Participate

• Emission Reduction Projects: Industries investing in renewable energy, energy efficiency, or carbon capture can generate credits.
• Carbon Trading System: Companies emitting below their allowed limit can sell excess credits, while high-emission firms purchase credits to meet regulations.
• Government Oversight: India’s carbon market will be regulated to ensure fairness and transparency.
• International Collaboration: Businesses can partner with global investors to enhance climate action.

Economic Benefits

• Revenue Generation: Companies adopting green practices can earn money by selling credits.
• Technology Advancement: The market encourages businesses to invest in cleaner technologies.
• Boost to Renewable Energy: Increased demand for solar, wind, and hydropower solutions.
• Global Recognition: Participation enhances corporate sustainability credentials.