India–Japan Relations: Strategic, Economic & Cultural Partnership

Prime Minister Narendra Modi will travel to Japan from August 29 to 30, 2025, for the 15th India–Japan Annual Summit—his first with Japanese Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba. This visit marks Modi’s eighth to Japan, though his last participation in an Annual Summit was in 2018. Since then, he has visited Japan for various multilateral engagements, including the G20 in Osaka in 2019 and the G7 in Hiroshima in 2023. Following his Japan visit, Modi is scheduled to travel to Tianjin, China, to attend the Heads of State Council meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO).

An Enduring and Evolving Partnership

India and Japan share one of India’s longest-standing summit-level diplomatic mechanisms, comparable only to the one with Russia. The bilateral relationship has advanced through successive phases: from a Global Partnership in 2000, to a Strategic and Global Partnership in 2006, and finally to a Special Strategic and Global Partnership in 2014. The frequent summits held between former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and Prime Minister Modi injected a strategic depth and personal rapport that significantly elevated the trajectory of bilateral relations.

Strategic Convergence in the Indo-Pacific

The two countries share a deep strategic alignment in the Indo-Pacific. India’s Act East Policy and its Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) correspond closely with Japan’s Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) vision. Japan leads the connectivity pillar of the IPOI and continues to be India’s largest provider of Official Development Assistance (ODA), reinforcing its commitment to regional development and infrastructure connectivity.

Multilateral Synergy

Beyond their bilateral engagement, India and Japan maintain close cooperation in several key multilateral forums. Both are active participants in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad), the International Solar Alliance (ISA), the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), and the Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI). These platforms reflect their shared interests in fostering a rules-based international order, sustainable development, and resilient global supply chains.

Defence and Security Cooperation

• India and Japan have significantly deepened their defence and security partnership through a series of important agreements: the Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation in 2008, the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Cooperation and Exchanges in 2014, the Information Protection Agreement in 2015, and the Reciprocal Provision of Supplies and Services Agreement in 2020. A notable recent development was the co-development of the UNICORN naval mast in 2024.
• The two nations regularly engage in joint military exercises such as Malabar, Milan, JIMEX, Dharma Guardian, and coordinated operations between their coast guards. In 2024–25, these exercises have included the participation of service chiefs from both countries. Dialogue mechanisms like Defence Ministers’ meetings and Joint Service Staff Talks have helped institutionalize trust and operational coordination. In light of the evolving regional security landscape, both sides are actively discussing an upgrade to the 2008 security cooperation framework.

Trade and Investment Landscape

• Economic ties continue to grow robustly. Bilateral trade reached $22.8 billion in 2023–24, and stood at $21 billion for the April–January period of 2024–25. India’s primary exports to Japan include chemicals, vehicles, aluminium, and seafood, while major imports from Japan comprise machinery, steel, copper, and nuclear reactors. Japan is India’s fifth-largest source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), with cumulative investments reaching $43.2 billion as of December 2024.
• Approximately 1,400 Japanese companies operate across 5,000 establishments in India, and over 100 Indian companies are present in Japan. New areas of cooperation are emerging in sectors such as semiconductors, artificial intelligence, clean energy, startups, and supply chain resilience. Leaders are expected to announce a new economic security initiative, revise the bilateral investment target from ¥5 trillion to between ¥7 trillion and ¥10 trillion, and strengthen digital and energy partnerships.

Infrastructure and Developmental Cooperation

Japan has consistently been India’s largest bilateral development partner since 1958. In 2023–24 alone, it disbursed JPY 580 billion (approximately $4.5 billion) in ODA. The Mumbai–Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail project is a flagship example of this cooperation, reflecting Japan’s commitment to technology transfer and capacity-building. Discussions are ongoing to expand this cooperation into a wider mobility partnership encompassing railways, roads, and bridge construction.

Regional and Global Coordination

India and Japan coordinate closely in shaping a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific, primarily through the Quad grouping with the United States and Australia. Both countries are also advancing collaboration under the Supply Chain Resilience Initiative to reduce dependency on critical supply routes. The upcoming summit is likely to feature discussions on the future direction of the Quad, particularly in light of evolving U.S. foreign policy dynamics under the second Trump administration.

Cultural, Educational, and People-to-People Exchanges

• Cultural and educational ties between India and Japan are flourishing. The 2023–24 Year of Tourism Exchange, themed “Connecting Himalayas with Mount Fuji,” served to underscore the shared civilisational heritage and cultural resonance between the two nations. Educational collaboration is thriving, with 665 active academic partnerships supported by initiatives such as Edu-Connect, Universities Forum, and Skill Connect (launched in 2023), which help bridge Indian talent with Japanese employers.
• Japanese language education is gaining ground in India, while Indian studies are expanding in Japan. The Indian diaspora in Japan, numbering around 54,000, largely consists of IT professionals and engineers. The two governments are exploring cooperative frameworks to address Japan’s ageing population through Indian workforce integration and skills development, including new state-to-prefecture level partnerships to facilitate grassroots exchanges and joint projects.

Conclusion

India’s Asian diplomacy stands at a pivotal juncture. As trade frictions complicate relations with the United States and tensions persist with China and Pakistan, India’s growing partnership with Japan and other Indo-Pacific democracies emerges as a critical pathway toward enhanced strategic autonomy. The forthcoming summit between Modi and Ishiba will not only reaffirm longstanding bonds but also chart new directions for bilateral and regional cooperation in an increasingly complex geopolitical landscape.

India’s Samudrayaan Mission: Human Deep-Sea Exploration by 2027

India’s ambitious Samudrayaan Mission marked a key milestone this month as two Indian aquanauts, Commander (Retd) Jatinder Pal Singh and R Ramesh, conducted training dives aboard the French submersible Nautile, descending to depths of 5,002 metres and 4,025 metres in the Atlantic Ocean. These dives are part of crucial preparatory steps for the mission, which aims to send a three-member crew to a depth of 6,000 metres by 2027. Much like how international collaborations such as Axiom-4 contribute to India''s Gaganyaan space mission, this deep-sea experience is expected to provide vital operational insights and technical benchmarks for advancing India’s underwater exploration capabilities.

Samudrayaan: A Pillar of India’s Deep Ocean Mission

·       Launched under the Deep Ocean Mission approved by the Indian government in 2021 with a budget of ₹4,077 crore over five years, Samudrayaan is a flagship initiative designed to unlock the potential of deep-sea ecosystems and resources in a sustainable manner. Its primary goals include developing cutting-edge technologies for deep-sea mining, autonomous underwater vehicles, underwater robotics, and a human-rated submersible capable of carrying three individuals to depths of up to 6,000 metres.

·       In addition to its focus on submersible development, the mission also encompasses multiple critical components: establishing an ocean climate change advisory service, conserving deep-sea biodiversity, surveying ocean beds for mineral reserves, and innovating ocean-based energy and freshwater technologies. A state-of-the-art marine research station will also be created to translate oceanic research into industrial and technological applications, further strengthening India’s blue economy ambitions. The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) is the lead agency responsible for coordinating the mission and overseeing the development of the submersible.

Matsya-6000: The Core of India’s Crewed Deep-Sea Exploration

·       At the heart of the Samudrayaan Mission lies Matsya-6000, India’s first human-rated deep-sea submersible. This specialised underwater vehicle, inspired by the form of a large fish, is engineered to transport a three-person crew to the ocean floor. It houses a 2.1-metre-diameter pressure sphere, designed to maintain a safe, habitable environment for the crew during missions that can last up to 12 hours, with emergency life-support systems capable of sustaining life for 96 hours if necessary.

·       The initial trials at a depth of 500 metres will use a steel-based sphere. However, because steel cannot withstand the immense pressure—approximately 600 times atmospheric pressure—found at 6,000 metres, the final mission vehicle will utilise a titanium alloy sphere, 80 mm thick, to ensure the structural integrity required for such extreme environments.

Scientific and Engineering Challenges of Samudrayaan

·       India’s goal of sending a human crew 6,000 metres beneath the ocean surface involves surmounting several formidable scientific, engineering, and physiological hurdles.

·       A primary challenge lies in constructing a pressure-resistant vessel. The titanium alloy sphere being developed by ISRO must maintain uniform thickness to within 0.2 mm, as any discrepancy could result in structural failure. Titanium, however, is a rare and strategically controlled material, making procurement and processing a complex task. Electron beam welding must also be executed with microscopic precision to meet safety and performance standards.

·       Inside the confined space of the pressure sphere, maintaining a stable and livable environment is equally critical. The atmosphere must be continuously regulated to sustain 20% oxygen levels and remove carbon dioxide. Emergency systems include packed re-breather units that recycle exhaled air, similar to those used in advanced diving gear.

·       Human factors also present major constraints. Aquanauts must maintain peak physical fitness to withstand prolonged exposure to high pressure and must be able to react swiftly in emergencies. The limited space precludes the use of washroom facilities, so crew members follow a carefully controlled diet before and during the mission. For example, during his nine-hour dive to a depth of 5,002 metres, Commander (Retd) Jatinder Pal Singh consumed only a handful of dry fruits to minimise physiological stress.

·       Communication also poses unique challenges. Traditional radio waves cannot penetrate seawater beyond shallow depths, making real-time dialogue with the surface impossible. In response, India has developed its own acoustic communication system—an underwater telephone that uses sound waves to transmit signals. While initial harbour trials were unsuccessful due to temperature and salinity disruptions, the system was eventually validated during open-sea testing.

Strategic Significance within the Blue Economy Framework

·       India, endowed with a 7,517 km-long coastline, is intensifying its investments in deep-sea missions as part of its broader Blue Economy vision. The deep ocean represents one of the planet’s least explored frontiers, holding immense potential in the form of mineral deposits, energy resources, and unique marine biodiversity. Harnessing these untapped domains aligns with India’s long-term developmental goals and contributes directly to the vision of "Viksit Bharat"—a fully developed India.

·       Deep-sea exploration, along with advances in outer space, is increasingly seen as pivotal to securing national interests, ensuring energy security, and promoting technological innovation. By undertaking the Samudrayaan Mission, India aims not only to push the boundaries of scientific exploration but also to establish itself as one of the few nations in the world—alongside the United States, Russia, China, Japan, and France—with the capability to conduct crewed deep-sea missions at such depths. The 2027 timeline sets a bold yet achievable target for India’s ascent as a leader in ocean sciences and underwater engineering.

Declining School Enrolment in India: Impact of Falling Birth Rates and Demographic Shifts

India is witnessing a significant and persistent decline in school enrolment, a trend that reflects deeper demographic changes and shifting educational preferences. According to the most recent data from the Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+) released by the Ministry of Education, total student enrolment in the 2024–25 academic year dropped by nearly 25 lakh among children aged 3 to 11 compared to the previous year. Overall enrolment across Classes 1 to 12 fell by 11 lakh students, reaching the lowest level since 2018–19. While the falling birth rate is the most prominent factor behind this decline, other elements such as migration, demographic transitions, and a rising shift toward private schooling are also reshaping India’s educational landscape.

Enrolment Trends and Shifts

·       The UDISE+ 2023–24 report had recorded 12.09 crore students in the foundational and preparatory stages of schooling. In 2024–25, this figure fell to 11.84 crore—a loss of 24.93 lakh students in just one year. Enrolment across all classes, from Grade 1 to 12, also declined from 24.80 crore in 2023–24 to 24.69 crore in 2024–25. This is not an isolated fluctuation but part of a continuous downward trend, signalling a structural transformation in India’s school-age population.

·       Government schools have experienced a consistent decline in enrolment figures. Between 2022–23 and 2024–25, government school enrolment dropped from 13.62 crore to 12.16 crore. In contrast, private schools saw steady growth over the same period, with enrolment rising from 8.42 crore to 9.59 crore. This points to an increasing preference among parents for private education, despite its higher financial cost, and reflects changing perceptions about quality and outcomes in public versus private schooling.

Underlying Causes of the Decline

·       One of the central causes of the enrolment dip is India’s declining fertility rate. The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 2021 recorded India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) at 1.91—below the replacement level of 2.1. With the exception of states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Meghalaya, most Indian states now report fertility rates below replacement level. As a result, the number of children entering the education system has naturally diminished, contributing significantly to the downward enrolment trend.

·       In addition to demographic changes, methodological updates in UDISE+ have played a role in reshaping the reported data. Since 2022–23, UDISE+ has adopted a more precise system of recording individual student data, moving away from aggregated school-level data. This shift has helped eliminate duplicate entries, yielding more accurate—but numerically lower—enrolment figures.

·       Migration patterns and the increasing presence of standalone private pre-primary institutions have further influenced the data. A growing number of children are now enrolled in nurseries and preschools that operate outside the government’s data framework. As families relocate to urban areas and opt for these unregistered private facilities, official enrolment numbers in the public domain have declined.

Encouraging Trends Amid the Decline

·       Despite the reduction in overall enrolment, some positive indicators have emerged. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) has improved, indicating that a greater proportion of eligible children are continuing their education. GER at the middle school level increased from 89.5% in 2023–24 to 90.3% in 2024–25, while at the secondary level, it rose from 66.5% to 68.5%.

·       Dropout rates have also shown a promising decline. In the preparatory stages, dropout rates fell from 3.7% in 2023–24 to 2.3% in 2024–25. At the secondary level, dropouts dropped from 10.9% to 8.2%, suggesting that while fewer children are entering the system, a higher proportion of those who do are staying in school longer.

·       The gender balance in enrolment has shown stability, with a marginal increase in enrolment among girls, even as figures for boys slightly declined. This reflects the success of gender-focused policies and the broader societal shift toward valuing girls’ education.

·       Another notable improvement is the student-teacher ratio, particularly at the foundational level. In 2014–15, the ratio stood at 1:15, which improved to 1:10 by 2024–25. This suggests more favourable learning environments and potentially better educational outcomes due to smaller classroom sizes and more teacher attention per student.

Implications and the Road Ahead

·       The consistent fall in school enrolment aligns with India’s broader demographic transition. As the country moves towards an ageing population structure, the education system will have to adjust to a reality where there are fewer students but potentially more resources per child. This opens the door for increased investment in quality education, infrastructure, and pedagogy, with an emphasis on improving learning outcomes rather than simply expanding access.

·       However, the trend also poses significant challenges for government schools, which are facing declining enrolment and growing competition from the private sector. To remain relevant and effective, public schools must undergo systemic reforms. These include upgrading infrastructure, improving teacher training, introducing accountability measures, and ensuring consistent delivery of quality education.

·       The rising demand for private education indicates growing public dissatisfaction with government schools, which must be addressed through focused policy efforts. Additionally, more accurate demographic insights are expected once the Census 2026 data becomes available, which will offer a clearer picture of India’s population structure and further inform education policy decisions.

·       In conclusion, while the decline in school enrolment reflects unavoidable demographic realities, it also presents an opportunity to reimagine the education system. By pivoting toward quality, efficiency, and equity, India can adapt its education model to serve a smaller but more diverse and aspirational student population in the years ahead.

India’s Demographic Dividend: A Time Bomb in the Making

India’s demographic dividend, once heralded as the nation’s greatest economic opportunity, is increasingly being viewed as a looming threat. With rising automation, outdated education systems, and low employability among graduates, experts are warning that what was once a promising asset could soon become a serious liability. Unless urgent reforms are introduced—particularly in skilling and education—India’s massive youth population may not only remain underutilised but may also fuel social and economic instability.

Understanding the Demographic Dividend

·       The demographic dividend refers to the economic growth potential that arises when a nation has a higher proportion of working-age individuals compared to dependents. This opportunity is not permanent; it is a time-sensitive window that must be leveraged through productive employment and skills development.

·       India stands at the heart of this demographic shift, with over 800 million people under the age of 35, making it the youngest population in the world. The dividend window is projected to remain open until 2045, giving the country just two more decades to fully harness the power of its youth.

The Potential and Promise of India’s Youth

·       India’s demographic advantage carries immense transformative potential. If properly utilised, it could dramatically accelerate economic and social progress. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has estimated that closing the gender gap in the workforce alone could increase India’s GDP by 27%. As global populations age, India has the opportunity to become a major supplier of skilled labour to international markets.

·       Beyond economic gains, the youth can drive innovation, fuel entrepreneurship, and adopt emerging technologies at scale. Sectors such as textiles, leather, and gems—heavily reliant on manual labour—stand to benefit from a young, energetic workforce. Additionally, gainful employment for the youth can foster poverty alleviation, upward mobility, and inclusive growth, creating a virtuous cycle of national development.

Mounting Challenges and Warning Signs

·       However, this potential is being undermined by a growing mismatch between the skills Indian youth possess and the demands of the labour market. According to the 2025 Graduate Skills Index, only 43% of Indian graduates are considered job-ready. The situation is particularly dire in engineering education, where 40–50% of graduates remain unemployed due to poor alignment between curricula and industry needs.

·       The threat of automation further exacerbates this challenge. A McKinsey report projects that 70% of jobs in India are at risk of being displaced by AI and automation by 2030. Meanwhile, female labour force participation remains stubbornly low, ranging between 37% and 41.7%, significantly below global averages.

·       Equally concerning is the lack of career awareness among students. A staggering 93% of school-going children are familiar with only seven career options, despite the existence of over 20,000 viable career paths. This profound knowledge gap severely restricts informed decision-making and hinders talent optimisation.

Consequences of Failing to Act

·       If these structural issues remain unaddressed, India may face severe economic and social repercussions. The country could find itself mired in jobless growth, stagnant exports, and widespread underutilisation of its human capital. Disillusioned youth may fuel unrest, echoing past episodes of social turbulence such as the Mandal agitation of 1990.

·       India also risks missing the opportunity to emulate the economic transformations of nations like China and Japan, both of which successfully leveraged their demographic windows. Furthermore, without meaningful change, India could witness a significant brain drain, as skilled young professionals migrate abroad in search of better opportunities—ultimately weakening the country''s innovation ecosystem.

Strategic Interventions for a Productive Future

·       To avert this crisis and realise the full potential of its demographic advantage, India must implement a multi-pronged reform agenda.

·       A comprehensive overhaul of school and higher education curricula is imperative. Critical thinking, digital literacy, and artificial intelligence must become integral components of early education. At the same time, a National Skilling Framework is essential to align education with industry needs, ensuring a seamless transition from learning to earning.

·       Policies that support women’s participation in the workforce are vital. Accessible childcare, secure public transport, and flexible working models can help raise female labour force participation, making the economy more inclusive and productive.

·       Career guidance must be institutionalised at scale, starting from school level. Students must be exposed to diverse career paths and evolving job markets. Technology should be leveraged to offer adaptive, AI-driven re-skilling and cross-skilling platforms to prepare workers for new-age roles.

·       Public–private partnerships can play a critical role in bridging the gap between education and employment. Collaborations with industry can facilitate apprenticeships, internships, and the formalisation of gig and informal jobs. Regional success stories like Karnataka’s Shakti Yojana or Rajasthan’s Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme should be expanded and replicated nationwide.

Conclusion: A Defining Decade for India

·       India has entered its decisive decade. With the demographic dividend window set to close by 2045, the country is at a crossroads. The stakes are high: either equip the youth with future-ready skills and transform them into the backbone of national progress, or allow the growing mismatch between degrees and employability to become a demographic disaster.

·       As Rabindranath Tagore once said, we must prepare our children “for another time.” That time is now—the AI-driven, tech-centric world of tomorrow. Whether India can successfully adapt and rise will determine whether its youth become the architects of a prosperous future or the victims of a missed opportunity.

System of National Accounts 2025: Redefining Growth through Sustainability, Equity, and Inclusiveness

The United Nations Statistical Commission has recently adopted the System of National Accounts 2025 (SNA 2025)—a landmark revision of the global framework used to measure national economies. Moving beyond the conventional focus on GDP, SNA 2025 introduces a multidimensional approach that incorporates environmental sustainability, economic inequality, and unpaid household labour. This revision signifies a paradigm shift, making national accounting more reflective of today’s complex socioeconomic realities.

What is SNA 2025?

SNA 2025 is a comprehensive and updated international framework for compiling national accounts, replacing the earlier SNA 2008. Its core ambition is to improve how countries assess economic performance by capturing a broader set of indicators that matter for long-term well-being. Rather than focusing solely on the size of the economy, it incorporates the sustainability of growth, the fairness of distribution, and the value of non-market activities like unpaid care work.

Key Features of SNA 2025

·       A major innovation of SNA 2025 is its Natural Capital Accounting, which treats the depletion of non-renewable resources—such as coal, oil, gas, and minerals—as a production cost, effectively internalising environmental degradation. In contrast, renewable resources like solar, wind, and hydro energy are recognised as productive economic assets, aligning the accounting framework with climate goals.

·       SNA 2025 also introduces Distributional Accounts, presenting data on income, consumption, wealth, and savings broken down by household groups. This enables an assessment of inequality and offers insight into how economic growth is shared across the population.

·       Another transformative feature is the inclusion of unpaid work in extended accounts. Household and care labour—traditionally invisible in GDP calculations—is now recognised, particularly enhancing the visibility of women’s economic contribution.

·       Overall, SNA 2025 expands the policy relevance of national accounts by linking macroeconomic growth with fairness, ecological balance, and social inclusiveness.

India’s Preparedness and Progress

·       India is relatively well-positioned to transition to SNA 2025, having laid substantial groundwork through several policy and statistical initiatives.

·       The country has been publishing annual EnviStats reports since 2018, tracking environmental assets such as forests, minerals, energy, and water, aligning with the recommendations of the Dasgupta Committee (2013) on green accounting. These efforts form the foundation for integrating natural capital into official statistics.

·       In addition, India’s Time Use Surveys in 2019 and 2024 provide crucial data on unpaid domestic and care work, especially by women. This evidence base is vital for including non-market activities in the extended accounts envisaged by SNA 2025.

·       National datasets such as the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), All India Debt and Investment Survey (AIDIS), and Consumption Expenditure Surveys capture employment patterns, wealth distribution, and household consumption—making them ideal for constructing distributional accounts in line with the new framework.

·       Moreover, India’s ongoing National Accounts Base Revision Exercise presents a timely opportunity to institutionalise these advanced accounting principles. By integrating environmental costs, inequality measures, and unpaid labour, the new GDP base can reflect a more comprehensive picture of economic progress.

Opportunities Presented by SNA 2025

·       The adoption of SNA 2025 opens multiple avenues for policymaking in India. Recognising resource depletion as a cost enables the formulation of sustainability funds or future generation reserves from mining royalties, promoting long-term ecological balance.

·       Treating renewable energy as an asset reframes clean energy infrastructure not just as environmental policy but also as economic capital. This can encourage greater investment in solar, wind, and hydro technologies, with positive implications for both growth and climate commitments.

·       Inclusion of unpaid work creates an evidence base for gender-responsive policy design, supporting initiatives related to childcare, labour reforms, and social security. It highlights women’s vital contributions that were previously unacknowledged in economic metrics.

·       Linking national accounts to inequality metrics also enables sharper welfare targeting. Governments can now ask not just how much the economy grew, but who benefited from that growth, allowing for more equitable distribution of public resources.

Challenges to Implementation

·       Despite India’s promising start, implementing SNA 2025 presents substantial challenges. Data integration is complex, requiring the combination of detailed household surveys with national aggregates, which demands technical precision and institutional coordination.

·       Building institutional capacity at both central and state levels is essential. Statistical departments will need targeted training, new tools, and increased manpower to adopt and sustain green and distributional accounting practices.

·       Political resistance may also arise. States rich in natural resources could face lower Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) estimates once environmental depletion is factored in, potentially leading to pushback during fiscal negotiations or development planning.

·       Another concern is the communication gap surrounding India’s statistical advancements. Despite real progress, much of the public discourse continues to rely on outdated narratives, limiting informed debate and policy engagement.

The Way Forward

·       To ensure successful implementation of SNA 2025, India must establish a clear roadmap for its next base revision, including well-defined timelines, methodologies, and alignment with global standards.

·       Building state-level capacity is equally important. Training programmes, funding mechanisms, and technical support must be extended to state statistical departments to enable them to compile natural capital and distributional accounts effectively.

·       India should also institutionalise new data streams such as time-use statistics and inequality indicators, making them a regular part of the national accounts compilation process. This consistency will be vital for long-term credibility and impact.

·       Finally, the government must proactively communicate these innovations. Public outreach, academic engagement, and transparent reporting will be crucial in highlighting India’s leadership in evolving global statistical norms and in countering misinformation.

Conclusion

SNA 2025 represents a transformative shift in how we understand economic growth—not just as an expansion of output, but as progress that balances equity, environmental stewardship, and human dignity. With a foundation already laid through green accounting and detailed household surveys, India is well-prepared to lead this new era of measurement. As the nation marches toward Viksit Bharat 2047, embracing SNA 2025 ensures that growth is not judged solely by its scale but also by who it empowers, what it preserves, and how fairly it is shared.

Bypass Project Approved in Bhagirathi Eco-sensitive Zone Despite Rejection by Supreme Court Committee

·       In a move that has drawn both national attention and environmental concern, the Uttarakhand government has recently granted in-principle approval for the Netala bypass project in the ecologically fragile Bhagirathi Eco-sensitive Zone (ESZ). This decision comes despite earlier rejections by the Supreme Court-appointed High-Powered Committee (HPC), which had raised red flags over both the ecological and social implications of the project.

·       While the Ministry of Defence has categorised the project as one of strategic importance, environmentalists and experts remain apprehensive about its long-term impact. The site’s vulnerability was underscored by the recent flash flood in Dharali, which resulted in the collapse of a segment of the proposed bypass alignment. Expert assessments have warned that the area is highly prone to slope instability and subsidence, making it unsuitable for heavy infrastructure projects.

·       This decision by the state government reflects a broader and persistent tension between national security priorities and environmental conservation mandates—especially in regions like the Bhagirathi ESZ, which are both ecologically sensitive and geopolitically significant.

·       The situation has reignited the long-standing development versus environment debate in India. Proponents of developmental parity argue that economic progress is essential for alleviating poverty and hunger. As the population grows, the need for resource utilisation increases, and without people, the rationale for environmental preservation may become redundant. These voices often point out that sustainable livelihoods and infrastructure are key to national resilience.

·       In contrast, environmental advocates argue that no amount of development holds value if the natural systems that sustain life are irreparably damaged. They highlight how even seemingly minor developmental projects, when undertaken in fragile ecosystems or in combination with other human activities, can lead to large-scale and irreversible environmental degradation.

·       The root drivers of environmental degradation often include the compulsions of economic growth, the unchecked execution of large-scale projects, expansion of industrial zones and Special Economic Zones (SEZs), and accelerating urbanisation. These are further compounded by policy loopholes, such as the increasing trend of bypassing Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) to expedite project clearances.

·       In light of these conflicting pressures, several approaches to sustainable development have been proposed. The Ecological Approach, grounded in biocentrism, advocates for qualitative rather than quantitative growth and envisions human life operating within finite ecological constraints. This model emphasises the intrinsic value of nature, independent of human utility.

·       The Strong Sustainable Development framework treats environmental preservation as a prerequisite for economic development. It focuses on the protection and regeneration of environmental assets through regulation, policy intervention, and active community participation. It acknowledges the environment as a non-substitutable foundation for life and growth.

·       On the other hand, Weak Sustainable Development seeks to reconcile economic growth with ecological concerns. While economic expansion remains central, this approach integrates environmental costs into decision-making through mechanisms such as green taxes, pollution credits, and ecosystem service valuation.

·       Finally, the Treadmill Approach views sustainable development almost exclusively through the lens of continued economic growth. It assumes that human ingenuity and technological advancement will provide the necessary tools to address emerging environmental problems. However, this perspective is often criticised for underestimating ecological limits and over-relying on techno-centric solutions.

·       The Bhagirathi ESZ decision illustrates the difficult trade-offs that developing economies must navigate. It brings to the fore fundamental questions about the kind of development model India wants to pursue—one that prioritises short-term strategic imperatives or one that safeguards its long-term ecological security.

Chhath Festival: Towards UNESCO Recognition

Context

The Department of Art and Culture, Government of Bihar, has selected the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) as its knowledge partner to prepare a comprehensive dossier for the inclusion of the Chhath festival in UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Overview and Significance

Chhath is a deeply spiritual and environmentally conscious Vedic festival dedicated to the Sun God (Surya) and Chhathi Maiya, who is considered the Sun’s sister. Rooted in ancient Hindu traditions, this festival is celebrated with great devotion primarily in the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, and certain regions of Nepal. In recent decades, its observance has expanded globally, carried forward by the Indian diaspora, reinforcing cultural continuity abroad.

Historical and Cultural Background

Regarded as one of the oldest surviving Vedic rituals, Chhath finds mention in the Rig Veda and is linked to the legend of Karna from the Mahabharata, known for his devotion to the Sun. The festival epitomises values of austerity, self-discipline, ecological balance, and spiritual purity. It reflects a unique integration of nature worship, community bonding, and ritualistic rigor, making it a vital aspect of India’s intangible heritage.

Festival Rituals and Observances

·       Chhath is a four-day observance marked by stringent rituals and profound spiritual dedication. It begins with Nahay Khay (Chaturthi), where devotees bathe and consume a simple, vegetarian meal. This is followed by Lohanda or Kharna, involving a full day fast, broken only after sunset with offerings of kheer and jaggery-laced roti. The third day, Sandhya Arghya, involves evening prayers offered to the setting sun, while the fourth and final day, Usha Arghya, is devoted to sunrise prayers, concluding the religious journey.

·       Throughout the festival, devotees maintain complete abstinence, undertake ritual bathing in rivers or ponds, and offer traditional prasad including Thekua, Kasar, kheer, and seasonal fruits. Celebrations are profoundly communal, often taking place along the banks of rivers, reservoirs, or other water bodies, signifying harmony between humans and nature.

Symbolism and Broader Meaning

Chhath embodies gratitude towards the solar deity for sustaining life, fostering prosperity, health, and longevity. The rituals, grounded in frugality and simplicity, are environmentally aligned, reinforcing awareness about clean water, non-polluting practices, and ecological respect. Its continued relevance in contemporary times makes a strong case for global recognition as an emblem of cultural sustainability.

National Sports Day 2025: Celebrating Fitness, Legacy, and Participation

Context

On 29th August 2025, India observed National Sports Day, commemorating the birth anniversary of the hockey legend Major Dhyan Chand. This year’s observance was marked by the nationwide theme, “Ek Ghanta, Khel ke Maidan Main”, encouraging citizens to devote at least one hour daily to physical activity.

Purpose and Observance

·       National Sports Day is an annual celebration dedicated to promoting sportsmanship, physical fitness, and public awareness about the value of active lifestyles. First officially celebrated in 2012, the day has become a national platform for honouring athletes, encouraging youth participation, and reinforcing the role of sports in nation-building.

·       The theme for 2025, centred on daily physical activity, underlines the health imperative of regular exercise and aims to embed fitness as a daily habit among all age groups.

Major Dhyan Chand: The Legacy

·       Born on 29 August 1905 in Allahabad (now Prayagraj), Major Dhyan Chand is universally celebrated as the “Hockey Wizard” for his unmatched skills and profound impact on the game. He led India to three Olympic gold medals in 1928, 1932, and 1936, and his legacy lives on not only in his playing style—renowned for surgical ball control and prolific goal-scoring—but also in his sportsmanship and patriotism.

·       Recognising his contributions, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Bhushan in 1956, and in 2021, India’s highest sports award was renamed the Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award in his honour.

Rio Earth Summit 1992: A Landmark in Global Climate Governance

Context

The year 2025 marks 33 years since the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, a pivotal moment in environmental diplomacy and the genesis of modern climate governance frameworks.

Overview and Significance

The Rio Earth Summit, officially called the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. With participation from 172 countries, including 108 heads of state and over 2,400 NGOs, it was the largest and most comprehensive global gathering to address environmental and developmental challenges simultaneously.

Key Contributions

·       The summit established sustainable development as the cornerstone of international cooperation. It introduced the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), acknowledged the sovereign rights of states over their natural resources, and explicitly linked environmental conservation with development, equity, and global trade.

·       The event produced five major outcomes: the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). These foundational treaties and frameworks continue to guide global environmental policy and multilateral cooperation.

Legacy and Ongoing Relevance

The Rio Summit laid the groundwork for landmark agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015). It elevated the voice of the Global South, with India and the G77 playing key roles in shaping climate discourse and equity concerns. Despite persistent challenges, the Rio Earth Summit remains a symbol of global solidarity and shared responsibility toward planetary well-being.

Japan: Geographical and Diplomatic Significance

Context

The Prime Minister of India is on an official visit to Japan for the 15th India–Japan Annual Summit, marking his first bilateral meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba. The visit aims to strengthen the long-standing Special Strategic and Global Partnership between the two nations.

Geographical Overview

·       Japan is an island nation situated in East Asia, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east and south, and separated from the Asian mainland—China, Korea, and Russia—by the Sea of Japan and East China Sea. Its strategic location makes it a key player in regional geopolitics.

·       The country is composed of four major islands—Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku—along with several smaller archipelagos such as the Ryukyu, Izu, Bonin, and Volcano Islands.

Physical and Climatic Features

·       Nearly 80% of Japan’s terrain is mountainous, with frequent volcanic activity. The iconic Mount Fuji, standing at 3,776 meters, is the highest and most revered peak. The country’s rivers, although short, are fast-flowing and form fertile deltas like those of the Kantō, Nōbi, and Osaka plains.

·       Japan’s climate is marked by ample rainfall and mild temperatures, which support lush forests, paddy cultivation, and fruit orchards. However, the country’s geological positioning on the Pacific Ring of Fire makes it prone to natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions.

NARI 2025 Report: Urban Women’s Safety in Focus

Context

The National Annual Report and Index on Women’s Safety (NARI 2025) has highlighted alarming gaps in women’s safety across Indian cities. Despite ongoing efforts to improve public infrastructure and security, 40% of urban women still perceive their environment as unsafe. This perception sharply contrasts with official data reported by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), suggesting significant underreporting.

About the Report

NARI 2025 is a data-driven, survey-based index aimed at assessing the real-world experiences of women concerning safety across 31 Indian cities. Based on responses from 12,770 women, the report delves into personal accounts of harassment, perceived safety, and the overall security landscape beyond formal crime statistics.

Key Trends and Observations

·       According to the findings, nearly 7% of women in urban India experienced harassment in 2024—far exceeding the cases reflected in NCRB records. Younger women, particularly those aged 18 to 24, were identified as the most vulnerable group. Cities such as Kolkata, Delhi, Ranchi, Srinagar, and Faridabad emerged as among the least safe for women, whereas Mumbai, Kohima, Bhubaneswar, Gangtok, and Itanagar were rated as comparatively safer.

·       Alarmingly, only 22% of the women who encountered harassment reported the incidents to authorities. Harassment commonly involved forms of public misconduct such as lewd comments, catcalling, inappropriate touching, and prolonged staring. Women linked their discomfort primarily to inadequate lighting, poorly maintained public transport systems, and overall weak urban infrastructure.

·       Moreover, 53% of respondents were unsure whether their workplaces had implemented the mandatory Prevention of Sexual Harassment (POSH) policy, indicating poor awareness and possible non-compliance with workplace safety laws.

Discovery of Two New Springtail Species in India

Context

Scientists at the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) have recently discovered two previously unknown species of Collembola—commonly known as springtails—named Salina aurantiamaculata and Salina pseudomontana. These findings mark the first such identification of Salina species in India since 1979.

Species Overview

Salina aurantiamaculata is notable for its vivid orange markings, a rare pigmentation pattern within its genus. Its counterpart, Salina pseudomontana, bears a close resemblance to the previously known Salina montana, which necessitated detailed taxonomic differentiation. Both new species belong to the globally distributed “celebensis” group of Collembola.

Ecological Importance of Springtails

Collembola are ancient hexapods and among the oldest known terrestrial arthropods. They thrive in soil, decaying wood, and leaf litter—habitats that often go unnoticed. Despite their small size and low profile, springtails play a crucial role in maintaining soil health, aiding in nutrient cycling, and acting as sensitive indicators of environmental conditions such as pollution and climate change. Their presence is considered essential for sustaining healthy ecosystems. With the latest additions, India’s total known species of Salina now stands at 17.

Prairies: Restoration and Global Ecological Significance

Context

New initiatives, including the launch of a comprehensive database, have been undertaken to support the restoration of prairies—one of Earth’s most productive yet endangered terrestrial ecosystems.

Geographic and Ecological Characteristics

Prairies are flat, temperate grasslands primarily found in North America, particularly in areas with limited annual rainfall. Their vegetation is maintained through natural disturbances such as fire, drought, grazing, and low temperatures. Although grasses dominate prairie ecosystems, they are accompanied by lichens, mosses, forbs, and low to mid-sized shrubs. In areas with greater moisture, taller species such as willows, aspens, poplars, and cottonwoods can be found in valleys and depressions.

Adaptations of Prairie Flora

The grasses that dominate prairie landscapes exhibit several survival adaptations. These include deep root systems, growing points located near the ground for regeneration, narrow leaves that reduce water loss, and small wind-pollinated flowers. Their tems and leaves often contain silica-based phytoliths, providing structural resilience. These traits allow prairie plants to optimise photosynthesis while conserving moisture in semi-arid conditions.

Wildlife Diversity

Prairies support a wide array of wildlife adapted to open, windy, and dry environments. Common animal species include elk, deer, coyotes, bobcats, badgers, jackrabbits, ground squirrels, and pocket gophers. The prairie’s biodiversity rivals that of many other ecosystems, offering both ecological and agricultural value.

Global Comparisons

Similar temperate grassland ecosystems are found around the world—referred to as pampas in South America, velds in Africa, and steppes in Asia—highlighting their global significance and the need for international conservation efforts.

Burmese Pythons: Invasive Species and Control Measures

·       In Florida, the unchecked proliferation of Burmese pythons has become a serious ecological issue. Authorities have begun deploying robotic rabbits as part of innovative strategies to curb their growing population.

·       The Burmese python ranks among the world’s largest snake species, capable of growing up to 20 feet in length and weighing over 250 pounds. Females are generally larger than males. This solitary, non-venomous, and primarily nocturnal snake is well adapted to forested habitats and is also a proficient swimmer, capable of remaining submerged for up to 30 minutes. It spends much of its time concealed in dense vegetation and emerges mainly for hunting or when disturbed.

·       Previously considered a subspecies of Python molurus until 2009, the Burmese python is now recognised as a distinct species. Its natural habitats include grasslands, swamps, marshes, rainforests, caves, and mangrove forests across regions such as eastern and northeastern India, Myanmar, southern China, and parts of Southeast Asia, including sections of the Indonesian archipelago, as well as Bhutan, Bangladesh, and eastern Nepal.

·       Despite being native to Asia, it has become an invasive species in Florida due to the exotic pet trade. Its growing presence poses a major threat to native wildlife. According to the IUCN, the species is currently listed as "Vulnerable," underlining the need for conservation efforts in its natural range while also controlling its spread in non-native ecosystems.

UDISE+ 2024–25: Crossing the One Crore Mark in Teaching Workforce

Context

The Ministry of Education has released the latest Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+) report for 2024–25. A major highlight of the report is that India has now surpassed the one crore mark in the number of teachers recorded in its school education system.

About UDISE+

UDISE+ is a national educational management information system under the Department of School Education and Literacy, Government of India. This platform enables real-time data entry and reporting by recognised schools—from pre-primary to higher secondary levels—across the country. The platform serves as a comprehensive data hub on infrastructure, student profiles, and teaching staff.

Operational Structure and Features

Each school that is part of UDISE+ is assigned a unique 11-digit identification code and login credentials to update and modify data as needed. The system ensures multi-tier validation—at block, district, state, and national levels—to maintain accuracy.

The platform is divided into three major, integrated data modules:

1. School Profile and Facilities: Records detailed information about a school’s infrastructure, services, and amenities.
2. Student Module: Tracks each student’s academic and extracurricular profile using a unique Permanent Education Number (PEN).
3. Teacher Profile Module: Stores academic qualifications, general information, and appointment details of both teaching and non-teaching staff.

Additionally, a School User Directory module facilitates the onboarding and management of school-level users and data entry administrators, ensuring seamless coordination between various administrative levels.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

·       The head of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the UN’s nuclear oversight body, has confirmed that a team of inspectors has returned to Iran, marking a renewed phase of monitoring activities.

·       The IAEA is the premier global intergovernmental organisation responsible for promoting scientific and technical cooperation in the nuclear domain. Established by the IAEA Statute—approved on 23 October 1956 and operational from 29 July 1957—the agency functions as an autonomous body within the broader United Nations system. It reports to both the UN General Assembly and the Security Council, underlining its central role in international nuclear governance.

·       The IAEA''s primary mission is to prevent the diversion of nuclear energy from peaceful purposes to the development of nuclear weapons. Currently, it comprises 180 member states, reflecting its global credibility and extensive mandate. Its headquarters is situated in Vienna, Austria.

·       The institutional framework of the IAEA consists of three core components: the General Conference, the Board of Governors, and the Secretariat. The General Conference, comprising all member states, convenes annually to decide on the agency’s budget and to shape general policy directions. The Board of Governors, composed of 35 members, meets approximately five times a year. Its responsibilities include approving safeguards agreements, executing statutory functions, and appointing the Director General. The day-to-day functioning of the organisation is managed by the Secretariat, under the leadership of the Director General.

·       To fulfil its objectives, the IAEA enforces comprehensive safeguards to ensure nuclear technology is used solely for peaceful purposes. These safeguards include systematic monitoring, on-site inspections, data analysis, and other verification techniques that help assess whether nuclear materials are being diverted from peaceful to military applications.

India’s Road Safety Landscape: 2023 Report Overview

·       The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has released the 2023 edition of its annual report on road safety in India, revealing a concerning rise in both the number of accidents and fatalities.

·       In 2023, India recorded 480,583 road accidents—an increase of 4.2% compared to the previous year. Young adults between the ages of 18 and 45 accounted for 66.4% of all fatalities. Tamil Nadu reported the highest number of total accidents, followed by Madhya Pradesh. In terms of deaths, Uttar Pradesh topped the list, followed by Tamil Nadu.

·       A striking insight from the report is that national and state highways, which account for just about 5% of the total road network, were responsible for over 53% of all road accidents and 59% of the fatalities. Among the victims, two-wheeler riders made up the largest share of deaths at 45%, followed by pedestrians.

·       The major causes of these accidents are categorised into human error (such as traffic rule violations, driving without valid licenses, and non-use of safety equipment), road environment factors (including poor road design, hazardous zones, and weather-related incidents), and vehicular conditions like ageing vehicles and overloading.

·       To address these issues, the Ministry has undertaken several mitigation measures. Educational initiatives such as the Road Safety Advocacy Scheme and observance of National Road Safety Week aim to raise public awareness. Engineering interventions include road safety audits and identification of accident-prone black spots, along with mandates for improved vehicle features like airbags and child safety provisions. Enforcement efforts have been strengthened through provisions in the Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019, including the use of electronic surveillance. Emergency response strategies now emphasise legal protection for good samaritans, compensation for accident victims, and improved ambulance services.

Monsoon-related Extreme Weather and India’s Climate Vulnerabilities

·       Recent monsoon events, including floods in Punjab and landslides in the Himalayan states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir, underscore the growing intensity and frequency of climate-induced disasters across India.

·       Monsoon patterns are undergoing a significant transformation. While monsoon winds are reportedly weakening, the concurrent rise in atmospheric temperatures is increasing moisture content, resulting in more intense and short-lived bursts of rainfall interspersed with dry spells. The once-predictable relationship between El Niño and reduced monsoon rainfall in India is also weakening due to broader changes in global atmospheric circulation.

·       The spatial distribution of monsoon rainfall is also changing. Humid regions are gradually becoming drier, while traditionally arid areas are experiencing heavier rainfall. For example, rainfall is declining across the Ganga basin while increasing in regions like Saurashtra in Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan. Climate change, driven by rising sea surface temperatures and increased water vapour, is further exacerbating this shift.

·       The consequences are far-reaching. Increased rainfall intensity has overwhelmed disaster preparedness systems, leading to infrastructure damage and loss of life. Public health is also at risk, with a surge in diseases such as dengue and conditions like heat stress. The unpredictability of rainfall patterns has made forecasting more difficult, complicating early warning mechanisms.

·       Economically, the impact is profound. About 51% of India’s cultivated land depends on the monsoon, which contributes to 40% of agricultural output. Moreover, nearly 47% of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood, making the sector especially vulnerable to erratic weather.

·       This evolving climate reality necessitates a shift in approach—from reactive, post-disaster management to proactive, pre-disaster planning. Investing in resilient infrastructure, improving forecasting capabilities, and implementing early-warning systems are critical to safeguarding lives, livelihoods, and long-term development.

Raja Prithu Rae: Defender of Kamrupa

·       Raja Prithu Rae, a formidable ruler of Kamrupa (present-day Assam) in the early 13th century, played a crucial role in resisting northern invasions and safeguarding the cultural heritage of the region. He was a prominent monarch of the Khen dynasty, which traced its lineage to the legendary figure Narakasura. The Khen rulers were devout worshippers of Goddess Kamteswari, a regional incarnation of Goddess Durga, and they emerged as influential chieftains following the decline of the Pala dynasty.

·       The rise of the Khen dynasty also marked the formation of the Kamata Kingdom, an entity historically referred to by various names including Kamru, Kamrud, Kamrupa, Kamata, Koch, and Koch Hajo. Under Raja Prithu’s leadership, the kingdom witnessed a resurgence in local authority and resilience in the face of external threats.

·       One of his most notable military achievements was the successful defeat of Bakhtiyar Khilji, a prominent general of the Delhi Sultanate, who launched an invasion into the region. This victory is etched into local memory and history, and is corroborated by the Kanai Varasi rock inscription, which records the destruction of the invading Turkic forces.

·       Beyond his martial prowess, Raja Prithu Rae was celebrated for his adherence to Dharma Yuddha, the ethical code of warfare. He is known to have pardoned prisoners of war, reflecting a sense of moral conduct that elevated him as not just a warrior, but also a just and principled ruler.

·       Raja Prithu Rae’s legacy is emblematic of resistance, cultural pride, and ethical governance during a turbulent period in northeastern India’s history. His reign laid the foundations for the continued evolution of regional identities in Assam and neighbouring regions, influencing socio-political structures that would endure for centuries.

UNGA Launches New Mechanisms for Global AI Governance

·       In a major move toward enhancing international collaboration on Artificial Intelligence (AI), the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) has announced the creation of two key mechanisms aimed at fostering responsible and inclusive global AI governance. This initiative aligns with the broader vision of the “Pact for the Future” and the “Global Digital Compact,” marking a significant step toward the development of international, non-military AI frameworks.

·       The first of these mechanisms is the Independent International Scientific Panel on Artificial Intelligence, which is tasked with deepening scientific understanding of AI. This panel will produce evidence-based assessments that compile and analyse existing research related to AI’s opportunities, risks, and societal impacts. The aim is to ground policy decisions in sound, objective scientific evaluations.

·       The second mechanism is the Global Dialogue on AI Governance, intended as a global platform to promote cooperation and exchange. This dialogue will facilitate the sharing of best practices, experiences, and lessons learned across countries. It will promote open, inclusive, and transparent discussions to shape a collective vision of AI governance that respects diverse perspectives and contexts.

·       These developments are part of a broader suite of UN-led initiatives that focus on digital transformation and AI. The Pact for the Future, adopted at the Summit of the Future in September 2024, outlines a strategic vision for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and responding to emerging global challenges. One of its key annexes, the Global Digital Compact, serves as a comprehensive global framework for cooperation on digital technologies, including AI governance.

·       Additionally, the AI for Good Global Summit, organised by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) since 2017, has consistently focused on leveraging AI technologies to accelerate progress on the SDGs. It identifies scalable AI applications with the potential to generate transformative global impacts.

·       These efforts are complemented by earlier landmark developments such as the adoption of the first global standard on AI ethics in 2021 and the UNESCO Recommendation on the Ethics of AI, which promote human rights, transparency, and accountability in AI systems. Collectively, these UN initiatives signify a shift toward multilateral, ethical, and development-oriented approaches to governing one of the most transformative technologies of our time.